activism letter against forced vaccination

[Guest guest]

received this activism letter to congress that you may be interested in

following through on.

tanya

Greetings!Rabies, Leptospira, Lyme, are killed, adjuvanted vaccines. Adjuvants are vaccine components (such as aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate) used to enhance the immunological response.The World Health Organization (WHO) in 1999 classified veterinary vaccine adjuvants as Class III/IV carcinogens with Class IV being the highest risk," IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 74, World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Feb. 23-Mar. 2, 1999, p. 24, 305, 310.)According to the 2003 American Animal Hospital Association's Canine Vaccine Guidelines _http://www.leerburg.com/special_report.htm_ (http://www.leerburg.com/special_report.htm) (Page 16), "...killed vaccines are much more likely to cause hypersensitivity reactions (e.g., immune-mediated disease)." Could this be due to the combination of mercury (thimersol) and aluminum additives in the same vaccine?Mercury (Thimersol) is commonly found as a preservative in killed, adjuvanted veterinary vaccines. The combination of the mercury (thimersol) and adjuvant components (aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate) in the same vaccine are of considerable concern because of the reactive properties of aluminum, especially when in contact with mercury (thimsersol). Please see the information below, as well as a Congressional petition to remove aluminum additives in human vaccines. Remember, mercury (thimersol) is still used in veterinary vaccines along with aluminium.Kris________________________________________________________________________________________________http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercuric_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercuric) Mercury and aluminiumMercury readily combines with _aluminium_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium) to form a _mercury-aluminum amalgam_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam) when the two pure metals come into contact. However, when the amalgam is exposed to air, the aluminium oxidizes, leaving behind mercury. The oxide flakes away, exposing more mercury amalgam, which repeats the process. This process continues until the supply of amalgam is exhausted, and since it releases mercury, a small amount of mercury can “eat through†a large amount of aluminium over time, by progressively forming amalgam and relinquishing the aluminium as oxide. Aluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide, which is not porous to oxygen. Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However, if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the aluminium before it finally ends._[45]_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercuric#cite_note-44) For this reason, restrictions are placed on the use and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed aboard aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.___________________________________________________________________________________________________http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam) Aluminium amalgam is a _solution_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution) of _aluminium_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium) in _mercury_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)) . Aluminium amalgam may be prepared by either grinding aluminium pellets or wire in mercury, or by allowing aluminium wire to react with a solution of _mercury(II) chloride_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury(II)_chloride) in water._[1]_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam#cite_note-0) _[2]_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam#cite_note-1) This amalgam is used as a chemical _reagent_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent) to _reduce_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox) compounds, such as the reduction of _imines_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imine) to _amines_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amines) . Since this reaction produces waste mercury metal, it is best avoided in favor of more environmentally friendly reagents such as _hydrides_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrides) ; the mercury-containing reaction waste is troublesome to dispose of as well. This reaction was popularized by _ Shulgin_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/_Shulgin) in his book _PiHKAL_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PiHKAL) , but has few virtues beyond being inexpensive and using chemicals that are readily available. ReactivityAluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide which is not porous to oxygen. Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However, if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the aluminium before it finally ends (Ornitz 1998). The net result is similar to the mercury electrodes often used in _electrochemistry_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry) , except instead of providing electrons from an electrical supply they are provided by the aluminium which becomes oxidized in the process. The reaction that occurs at the surface of the amalgam may actually be a hydrogenation rather than a reduction. The presence of water in the solution is reportedly helpful—even necessary; the electron rich amalgam will oxidize aluminium and reduce H+ from water, creating aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) and hydrogen gas (H2). Due to the reactivity of aluminium amalgam, restrictions are placed on the use and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed aboard aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft. In the _Second World War_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War) , mercury was used to sabotage aircraft.[_citation needed_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed) ] ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _http://www.petitiononline.com/NoMadVac/petition.html_ (http://www.petitiononline.com/NoMadVac/petition.html) U.S. Congress, U.S. Senate, General Public REMOVAL OF ALUMINUM ADDITIVE IN VACCINES RESOLUTION and PETITION Congressman Dan Burton 2185 Rayburn HOB Washington, DC 20515 202-225-2276 FAX: 202-225-0016 WHEREAS: Thimerosal also known as Mercury was removed from vaccines because of side effects in vaccines, increase of autism due to vaccine injury, thimerosal toxicity, and safety factors; and WHEREAS: One of the foremost Leading toxicologist Boyd Haley states that any good biochemist knows that Thimerosal and aluminum react dangerously when combined together. In light of my research study into the Summary Comparison of Characteristics of Autism, Aluminum, & Mercury Poisoning© showing that aluminum and mercury in autism has almost all similar effects, symptoms, causes and may mimic other disorders such as but not limited to Alzheimer’s; and WHEREAS: Studies throughout the years show that Aluminum by itself has the same effect as Thimerosal once injected into the human body as illustrated in the attached summary chart; and WHEREAS: An Aluminum compound also found in many of the vaccines. Aluminum at doses of 10 micromolar will kill all these same necessary enzymes as Thimerosal, plus do neurological damage. How much aluminum is in a vaccine? 17,500 micromolar and some more. How can we expect our bodies, and those of babies, to survive a blast of 17,500 when 10 has already done more than enough damage. The combination of mercury plus aluminum is far worse than the sum of the two toxicities added together. The synergist toxicity could be increased to unknown levels; and WHEREAS: Safety testing of many vaccines is limited and the data are unavailable for independent scrutiny, so that mass vaccination is equivalent to human experimentation and subject to the Nuremberg Code, which requires voluntary informed consent; and WHEREAS: Aluminum has been used in vaccines since around 1926-1930. In the past 5-10 years there has been an upsurge increasing growth of autism, mental disorders, and other illnesses; and WHEREAS: There are increasing numbers of mandatory childhood vaccines, to which children are often subjected without meaningful informed consent, including information about potential adverse side effects; and WHEREAS: Parents who exercise their freedom to refuse one or more vaccines may be subjected to penalties ranging from deprivation of the right to enroll their child in school, to threats of removing the child from parental custody and forcible vaccination; and WHEREAS: The process of approving and "recommending" vaccines is tainted with conflicts of interest; BE IT THEREFORE RESOLVED: That LD Wedewer, US Autism Ambassador, Joyce Minor, US Autism CO-Ambassador, Autism Awakening, Autism Help For you, Child Screen Team, VOSI, and many parents, and professionals has called for a moratorium on removal of Aluminum in all vaccines and request resolution sponsorship from Congressman Dan Burton. SAMPLE LETTER: Dear Senator ____________ I urge you to support and CO-Sponsor the REMOVAL OF ALUMINUM ADDITIVE IN VACCINES RESOLUTION and PETITION. I request recall of all vaccines containing mercury or aluminum additives. I believe every patient has a right to their personal belief as long as they are not breaking the law. I believe it should be the personal right of the individual and parent's decision to recieve vaccines. I believe that all individuals should be able to obtain various treatment options when conventional methods fail or after adequately gaining information as to the risk/benefits of traditional and alternative treatments. Please protect our right to choose to vaccinate and to choose the best healthcare delivery system by passing this legislation. If you have not done so already, Please cosponsor this important legislation. Senator, I believe that every citizen of this country has the right to a fair pursuit of justice when wronged. The drug companies are attempting to take away many Americans rights to freedom of choice, informed consent, and with the Vaccine amendments in the Homeland Security Bill moving forward quickly, we need to ensure that we do not take away the Constitution Rights of the people. Lets put a stop to anti-child, pro-corporation, anti-justice, and corporate welfare before that of the rights of our children, elderly, and general public. Thimerosal is a mercury-based preservative that may have damaged thousands of children, Aluminum mirrors the same effects and intensifies when combined together. These children and their families have the right to pursue this issue in court. I ask you, Senator, as a protector of our nation to choose to help our most precious national security our children Signature _________________ Name (Print or Type)_______________ Address ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ Please email us a copy at: USAutismAmbasadraol Or Postal mail us copy at: Autism Awakening 1900 K Street SW Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52404-3520 Send a copy to: Your US Senators and US Congressmen To locate which Representative/Senator Online: http://autismawakeninginia.bizland.com/ussenateandcongresscontactinformation/ Or call Autism Awakening at (319) 364-2687. Sincerely, ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _http://www.sciencebyjones.com/chemical_reactivity.htm_ (http://www.sciencebyjones.com/chemical_reactivity.htm) Chemical Reactivity General rules: a) metal atoms tend to transfer electrons to nonmetals when they react. nonmetal atoms tend to gain or share electrons when they react. c) to determine which metal or nonmetal is more reactive, compare elements within groups or periods (for diagonal predictions use Reactivity Series) Chemical Reactivity in a given period: _ For metals in a given period reactivity is determined by the number of electrons that must be transferred to a nonmetal. Those metals with only 1 outer shell electron will be more reactive than metals with two or more electrons. It takes less energy to remove one electron (lower first ionization energy). _ For nonmetals in a given period the greater the number of electrons already in the outer shell the more reactive that element will be. If a nonmetal has seven outer shell electrons it will only need to gain 1 electron to reach its octet. This nonmetal will be more reactive than a nonmetal that must gain two or more electrons. Summary: In the same period, it is the number of electrons that chiefly determines reactivity. The smaller the number of electrons transferred between reacting atoms, the more vigorous the reaction. Chemical Reactivity in a given group: _We already know that the negatively charged electrons are held in orbit by their attraction to the positively charged nucleus. This force of attraction decreases considerable as the distance from the nucleus increases. Therefore, electrons that are more distant from the nucleus are held less tightly and are more easily lost that are electrons closer to the nucleus. _Since the more distant electrons are more easily lost, metals having distant electrons (at the bottom of the group) react readily with other nonmetallic elements. _ Nonmetals combine chemically by gaining or sharing electrons (from metals or other nonmetallic elements). Since the attraction for electrons is greater when the atomic radius is small, the closer the outermost orbit (called the valence shell) is to the nucleus of a nonmetal, the more reactive it is. A small radius means that the nucleus pulls strongly on any electrons near it and strongly desires to fill its outer shell (Octet rule). The more reactive nonmetals will be found near the top of the group. Summary: In the same group, elements have the same number of outershell electrons and it is the atomic radius which largely determines reactivity. The larger metals loose outer shell electrons more easily and smaller nonmetals (whose attraction for electrons by the nucleus is greater) are more likely to take electrons away from other metals (or share with other nonmetals). The Reactivity SeriesBy studying replacement reactions we can arrange the metals in decreasing order of reactivity. The reactivity series list the different metals (and hydrogen) in order of their decreasing tendency to lose electrons in water solutions at specified temperatures. Hydrogen is on the list because it behaves as though it were a metal in certain reactions. Metals found above hydrogen will replace hydrogen in acid solutions, while those below will not. As we know the tendency of metals to lose electrons depends chiefly on the nuclear charge and on the atomic radius of the metal atom. The reactivity series may be used to make reasonable predictions concerning the reactivity of different metals. According to the table, for example, aluminum will replace mercury in an aqueous solution of a mercury compound. Silver will not replace tin. Li K Ba Sr Ca Na Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Cd Co Ni Sn Pb *H Sb As Bi Cu Ag Pd Hg Pt Au Most Reactive ----------------------------------------------------------à Least Reactive

[Guest guest]

received this activism letter to congress that you may be interested in

following through on.

tanya

Greetings!Rabies, Leptospira, Lyme, are killed, adjuvanted vaccines. Adjuvants are vaccine components (such as aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate) used to enhance the immunological response.The World Health Organization (WHO) in 1999 classified veterinary vaccine adjuvants as Class III/IV carcinogens with Class IV being the highest risk," IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 74, World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on Cancer, Feb. 23-Mar. 2, 1999, p. 24, 305, 310.)According to the 2003 American Animal Hospital Association's Canine Vaccine Guidelines _http://www.leerburg.com/special_report.htm_ (http://www.leerburg.com/special_report.htm) (Page 16), "...killed vaccines are much more likely to cause hypersensitivity reactions (e.g., immune-mediated disease)." Could this be due to the combination of mercury (thimersol) and aluminum additives in the same vaccine?Mercury (Thimersol) is commonly found as a preservative in killed, adjuvanted veterinary vaccines. The combination of the mercury (thimersol) and adjuvant components (aluminum hydroxide, aluminum phosphate) in the same vaccine are of considerable concern because of the reactive properties of aluminum, especially when in contact with mercury (thimsersol). Please see the information below, as well as a Congressional petition to remove aluminum additives in human vaccines. Remember, mercury (thimersol) is still used in veterinary vaccines along with aluminium.Kris________________________________________________________________________________________________http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercuric_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercuric) Mercury and aluminiumMercury readily combines with _aluminium_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium) to form a _mercury-aluminum amalgam_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam) when the two pure metals come into contact. However, when the amalgam is exposed to air, the aluminium oxidizes, leaving behind mercury. The oxide flakes away, exposing more mercury amalgam, which repeats the process. This process continues until the supply of amalgam is exhausted, and since it releases mercury, a small amount of mercury can “eat through†a large amount of aluminium over time, by progressively forming amalgam and relinquishing the aluminium as oxide. Aluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide, which is not porous to oxygen. Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However, if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the aluminium before it finally ends._[45]_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercuric#cite_note-44) For this reason, restrictions are placed on the use and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed aboard aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.___________________________________________________________________________________________________http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam) Aluminium amalgam is a _solution_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solution) of _aluminium_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium) in _mercury_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_(element)) . Aluminium amalgam may be prepared by either grinding aluminium pellets or wire in mercury, or by allowing aluminium wire to react with a solution of _mercury(II) chloride_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury(II)_chloride) in water._[1]_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam#cite_note-0) _[2]_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-aluminum_amalgam#cite_note-1) This amalgam is used as a chemical _reagent_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent) to _reduce_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox) compounds, such as the reduction of _imines_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imine) to _amines_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amines) . Since this reaction produces waste mercury metal, it is best avoided in favor of more environmentally friendly reagents such as _hydrides_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrides) ; the mercury-containing reaction waste is troublesome to dispose of as well. This reaction was popularized by _ Shulgin_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/_Shulgin) in his book _PiHKAL_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PiHKAL) , but has few virtues beyond being inexpensive and using chemicals that are readily available. ReactivityAluminium in air is ordinarily protected by a molecule-thin layer of its own oxide which is not porous to oxygen. Mercury coming into contact with this oxide does no harm. However, if any elemental aluminium is exposed (even by a recent scratch), the mercury may combine with it, starting the process described above, and potentially damaging a large part of the aluminium before it finally ends (Ornitz 1998). The net result is similar to the mercury electrodes often used in _electrochemistry_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrochemistry) , except instead of providing electrons from an electrical supply they are provided by the aluminium which becomes oxidized in the process. The reaction that occurs at the surface of the amalgam may actually be a hydrogenation rather than a reduction. The presence of water in the solution is reportedly helpful—even necessary; the electron rich amalgam will oxidize aluminium and reduce H+ from water, creating aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) and hydrogen gas (H2). Due to the reactivity of aluminium amalgam, restrictions are placed on the use and handling of mercury in proximity with aluminium. In particular, mercury is not allowed aboard aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft. In the _Second World War_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War) , mercury was used to sabotage aircraft.[_citation needed_ (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed) ] ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _http://www.petitiononline.com/NoMadVac/petition.html_ (http://www.petitiononline.com/NoMadVac/petition.html) U.S. Congress, U.S. Senate, General Public REMOVAL OF ALUMINUM ADDITIVE IN VACCINES RESOLUTION and PETITION Congressman Dan Burton 2185 Rayburn HOB Washington, DC 20515 202-225-2276 FAX: 202-225-0016 WHEREAS: Thimerosal also known as Mercury was removed from vaccines because of side effects in vaccines, increase of autism due to vaccine injury, thimerosal toxicity, and safety factors; and WHEREAS: One of the foremost Leading toxicologist Boyd Haley states that any good biochemist knows that Thimerosal and aluminum react dangerously when combined together. In light of my research study into the Summary Comparison of Characteristics of Autism, Aluminum, & Mercury Poisoning© showing that aluminum and mercury in autism has almost all similar effects, symptoms, causes and may mimic other disorders such as but not limited to Alzheimer’s; and WHEREAS: Studies throughout the years show that Aluminum by itself has the same effect as Thimerosal once injected into the human body as illustrated in the attached summary chart; and WHEREAS: An Aluminum compound also found in many of the vaccines. Aluminum at doses of 10 micromolar will kill all these same necessary enzymes as Thimerosal, plus do neurological damage. How much aluminum is in a vaccine? 17,500 micromolar and some more. How can we expect our bodies, and those of babies, to survive a blast of 17,500 when 10 has already done more than enough damage. The combination of mercury plus aluminum is far worse than the sum of the two toxicities added together. The synergist toxicity could be increased to unknown levels; and WHEREAS: Safety testing of many vaccines is limited and the data are unavailable for independent scrutiny, so that mass vaccination is equivalent to human experimentation and subject to the Nuremberg Code, which requires voluntary informed consent; and WHEREAS: Aluminum has been used in vaccines since around 1926-1930. In the past 5-10 years there has been an upsurge increasing growth of autism, mental disorders, and other illnesses; and WHEREAS: There are increasing numbers of mandatory childhood vaccines, to which children are often subjected without meaningful informed consent, including information about potential adverse side effects; and WHEREAS: Parents who exercise their freedom to refuse one or more vaccines may be subjected to penalties ranging from deprivation of the right to enroll their child in school, to threats of removing the child from parental custody and forcible vaccination; and WHEREAS: The process of approving and "recommending" vaccines is tainted with conflicts of interest; BE IT THEREFORE RESOLVED: That LD Wedewer, US Autism Ambassador, Joyce Minor, US Autism CO-Ambassador, Autism Awakening, Autism Help For you, Child Screen Team, VOSI, and many parents, and professionals has called for a moratorium on removal of Aluminum in all vaccines and request resolution sponsorship from Congressman Dan Burton. SAMPLE LETTER: Dear Senator ____________ I urge you to support and CO-Sponsor the REMOVAL OF ALUMINUM ADDITIVE IN VACCINES RESOLUTION and PETITION. I request recall of all vaccines containing mercury or aluminum additives. I believe every patient has a right to their personal belief as long as they are not breaking the law. I believe it should be the personal right of the individual and parent's decision to recieve vaccines. I believe that all individuals should be able to obtain various treatment options when conventional methods fail or after adequately gaining information as to the risk/benefits of traditional and alternative treatments. Please protect our right to choose to vaccinate and to choose the best healthcare delivery system by passing this legislation. If you have not done so already, Please cosponsor this important legislation. Senator, I believe that every citizen of this country has the right to a fair pursuit of justice when wronged. The drug companies are attempting to take away many Americans rights to freedom of choice, informed consent, and with the Vaccine amendments in the Homeland Security Bill moving forward quickly, we need to ensure that we do not take away the Constitution Rights of the people. Lets put a stop to anti-child, pro-corporation, anti-justice, and corporate welfare before that of the rights of our children, elderly, and general public. Thimerosal is a mercury-based preservative that may have damaged thousands of children, Aluminum mirrors the same effects and intensifies when combined together. These children and their families have the right to pursue this issue in court. I ask you, Senator, as a protector of our nation to choose to help our most precious national security our children Signature _________________ Name (Print or Type)_______________ Address ____________________ ____________________ ____________________ Please email us a copy at: USAutismAmbasadraol Or Postal mail us copy at: Autism Awakening 1900 K Street SW Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52404-3520 Send a copy to: Your US Senators and US Congressmen To locate which Representative/Senator Online: http://autismawakeninginia.bizland.com/ussenateandcongresscontactinformation/ Or call Autism Awakening at (319) 364-2687. Sincerely, ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _http://www.sciencebyjones.com/chemical_reactivity.htm_ (http://www.sciencebyjones.com/chemical_reactivity.htm) Chemical Reactivity General rules: a) metal atoms tend to transfer electrons to nonmetals when they react. nonmetal atoms tend to gain or share electrons when they react. c) to determine which metal or nonmetal is more reactive, compare elements within groups or periods (for diagonal predictions use Reactivity Series) Chemical Reactivity in a given period: _ For metals in a given period reactivity is determined by the number of electrons that must be transferred to a nonmetal. Those metals with only 1 outer shell electron will be more reactive than metals with two or more electrons. It takes less energy to remove one electron (lower first ionization energy). _ For nonmetals in a given period the greater the number of electrons already in the outer shell the more reactive that element will be. If a nonmetal has seven outer shell electrons it will only need to gain 1 electron to reach its octet. This nonmetal will be more reactive than a nonmetal that must gain two or more electrons. Summary: In the same period, it is the number of electrons that chiefly determines reactivity. The smaller the number of electrons transferred between reacting atoms, the more vigorous the reaction. Chemical Reactivity in a given group: _We already know that the negatively charged electrons are held in orbit by their attraction to the positively charged nucleus. This force of attraction decreases considerable as the distance from the nucleus increases. Therefore, electrons that are more distant from the nucleus are held less tightly and are more easily lost that are electrons closer to the nucleus. _Since the more distant electrons are more easily lost, metals having distant electrons (at the bottom of the group) react readily with other nonmetallic elements. _ Nonmetals combine chemically by gaining or sharing electrons (from metals or other nonmetallic elements). Since the attraction for electrons is greater when the atomic radius is small, the closer the outermost orbit (called the valence shell) is to the nucleus of a nonmetal, the more reactive it is. A small radius means that the nucleus pulls strongly on any electrons near it and strongly desires to fill its outer shell (Octet rule). The more reactive nonmetals will be found near the top of the group. Summary: In the same group, elements have the same number of outershell electrons and it is the atomic radius which largely determines reactivity. The larger metals loose outer shell electrons more easily and smaller nonmetals (whose attraction for electrons by the nucleus is greater) are more likely to take electrons away from other metals (or share with other nonmetals). The Reactivity SeriesBy studying replacement reactions we can arrange the metals in decreasing order of reactivity. The reactivity series list the different metals (and hydrogen) in order of their decreasing tendency to lose electrons in water solutions at specified temperatures. Hydrogen is on the list because it behaves as though it were a metal in certain reactions. Metals found above hydrogen will replace hydrogen in acid solutions, while those below will not. As we know the tendency of metals to lose electrons depends chiefly on the nuclear charge and on the atomic radius of the metal atom. The reactivity series may be used to make reasonable predictions concerning the reactivity of different metals. According to the table, for example, aluminum will replace mercury in an aqueous solution of a mercury compound. Silver will not replace tin. Li K Ba Sr Ca Na Mg Al Mn Zn Cr Fe Cd Co Ni Sn Pb *H Sb As Bi Cu Ag Pd Hg Pt Au Most Reactive ----------------------------------------------------------à Least Reactive