Guest guest Posted September 11, 2005 Report Share Posted September 11, 2005 Hi All, Two well known omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids seem to be important for avoiding pneumonia. See the pdf-available below paper excerpts. Anwar T Merchant, C Curhan, B Rimm, Walter C Willett, and Wafaie W Fawzi Intake of n–6 and n–3 fatty acids and fish and risk of community-acquired pneumonia in US men Am J Clin Nutr 2005 82: 668-674 .... We prospectively evaluated 38 378 male US health professionals aged 44–79 y at the outset. We updated medical and lifestyle information biennially through questionnaires and diet every 4 y with the use of a validated food-frequency questionnaire. We excluded men who reported pneumonia, myocardial infarction, stroke, other heart disease, arterial surgery, cancer, or asthma before 1990 or those with incomplete dietary data. Community-acquired pneumonia was determined by blinded medical record review of chest radiographs. Results: During 10 y of follow-up, there were 441 new cases of nonfatal community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumonia risk was lower in men in the highest energy-adjusted quintiles of intake than in men in the lowest quintiles of intake of linoleic acid [multivariate relative risk (RR): 0.70; 95% CI: 0.51, 0.96; P for trend = 0.01] and -linolenic acid (multivariate RR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.50, 0.93; P for trend = 0.01). Pneumonia risk decreased 4% for every 1-g/d increase in linoleic acid intake (multivariate RR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.93, 0.99). Pneumonia risk was reduced by 31% for every 1-g/d increase in -linolenic acid intake (multivariate RR: 0.69; 95% CI: 0.51, 0.93). Intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid were not significantly related to pneumonia risk. ... .... The relation between fish intake and pneumonia risk was inverse but nonsignificant. The multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia for men eating fish 5 or more times per week compared with those eating fish less than once per month was 0.59 (95% CI: 0.34, 1.02; P for trend = 0.18; Table 4). The association between long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake and pneumonia risk was not significant. The multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia comparing men in the extreme quintiles of long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake was 0.77 (95% CI: 0.44, 1.36; P for trend = 0.41; Table 4). Al Pater, PhD; email: old542000@... ______________________________________________________ Click here to donate to the Hurricane Katrina relief effort. http://store./redcross-donate3/ Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
Guest guest Posted September 11, 2005 Report Share Posted September 11, 2005 What are the best food sources for linoleic acid and linolenic acid? --- In , Al Pater <old542000@y...> wrote: > Hi All, > > Two well known omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids seem to be important for avoiding > pneumonia. See the pdf-available below paper excerpts. > > Anwar T Merchant, C Curhan, B Rimm, Walter C Willett, and Wafaie W Fawzi > Intake of n–6 and n–3 fatty acids and fish and risk of community- acquired pneumonia > in US men > Am J Clin Nutr 2005 82: 668-674 > > ... We prospectively evaluated 38 378 male US health professionals aged 44–79 y at > the outset. We updated medical and lifestyle information biennially through > questionnaires and diet every 4 y with the use of a validated food- frequency > questionnaire. We excluded men who reported pneumonia, myocardial infarction, > stroke, other heart disease, arterial surgery, cancer, or asthma before 1990 or > those with incomplete dietary data. Community-acquired pneumonia was determined by > blinded medical record review of chest radiographs. > > Results: During 10 y of follow-up, there were 441 new cases of nonfatal > community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumonia risk was lower in men in the highest > energy-adjusted quintiles of intake than in men in the lowest quintiles of intake of > linoleic acid [multivariate relative risk (RR): 0.70; 95% CI: 0.51, 0.96; P for > trend = 0.01] and -linolenic acid (multivariate RR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.50, 0.93; P for > trend = 0.01). Pneumonia risk decreased 4% for every 1-g/d increase in linoleic acid > intake (multivariate RR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.93, 0.99). Pneumonia risk was reduced by > 31% for every 1-g/d increase in -linolenic acid intake (multivariate RR: 0.69; 95% > CI: 0.51, 0.93). Intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid were not > significantly related to pneumonia risk. ... > > ... The relation between fish intake and pneumonia risk was inverse but > nonsignificant. The multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia for men eating > fish 5 or more times per week compared with those eating fish less than once per > month was 0.59 (95% CI: 0.34, 1.02; P for trend = 0.18; Table 4). The association > between long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake and pneumonia risk was not significant. The > multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia comparing men in the extreme > quintiles of long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake was 0.77 (95% CI: 0.44, 1.36; P for > trend = 0.41; Table 4). > > Al Pater, PhD; email: old542000@y... > > > > > ______________________________________________________ > Click here to donate to the Hurricane Katrina relief effort. > http://store./redcross-donate3/ Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
Guest guest Posted September 11, 2005 Report Share Posted September 11, 2005 What are the best food sources for linoleic acid and linolenic acid? --- In , Al Pater <old542000@y...> wrote: > Hi All, > > Two well known omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids seem to be important for avoiding > pneumonia. See the pdf-available below paper excerpts. > > Anwar T Merchant, C Curhan, B Rimm, Walter C Willett, and Wafaie W Fawzi > Intake of n–6 and n–3 fatty acids and fish and risk of community- acquired pneumonia > in US men > Am J Clin Nutr 2005 82: 668-674 > > ... We prospectively evaluated 38 378 male US health professionals aged 44–79 y at > the outset. We updated medical and lifestyle information biennially through > questionnaires and diet every 4 y with the use of a validated food- frequency > questionnaire. We excluded men who reported pneumonia, myocardial infarction, > stroke, other heart disease, arterial surgery, cancer, or asthma before 1990 or > those with incomplete dietary data. Community-acquired pneumonia was determined by > blinded medical record review of chest radiographs. > > Results: During 10 y of follow-up, there were 441 new cases of nonfatal > community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumonia risk was lower in men in the highest > energy-adjusted quintiles of intake than in men in the lowest quintiles of intake of > linoleic acid [multivariate relative risk (RR): 0.70; 95% CI: 0.51, 0.96; P for > trend = 0.01] and -linolenic acid (multivariate RR: 0.68; 95% CI: 0.50, 0.93; P for > trend = 0.01). Pneumonia risk decreased 4% for every 1-g/d increase in linoleic acid > intake (multivariate RR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.93, 0.99). Pneumonia risk was reduced by > 31% for every 1-g/d increase in -linolenic acid intake (multivariate RR: 0.69; 95% > CI: 0.51, 0.93). Intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid were not > significantly related to pneumonia risk. ... > > ... The relation between fish intake and pneumonia risk was inverse but > nonsignificant. The multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia for men eating > fish 5 or more times per week compared with those eating fish less than once per > month was 0.59 (95% CI: 0.34, 1.02; P for trend = 0.18; Table 4). The association > between long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake and pneumonia risk was not significant. The > multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia comparing men in the extreme > quintiles of long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake was 0.77 (95% CI: 0.44, 1.36; P for > trend = 0.41; Table 4). > > Al Pater, PhD; email: old542000@y... > > > > > ______________________________________________________ > Click here to donate to the Hurricane Katrina relief effort. > http://store./redcross-donate3/ Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
Guest guest Posted September 11, 2005 Report Share Posted September 11, 2005 > What are the best food sources for linoleic acid and linolenic acid? > > --------------------------- Hi , I think people eating Western diets get plenty of linoleic acid. The best linolenic sources are flax and salmon. Below is an article about alpha linolenic acid. Diane In recent years, some nutrition experts have expressed concern that the typical North American diet provides too much omega-6 and not enough omega-3 fatty acids. This chapter describes the current levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the modern diet and discusses the recommended dietary intakes of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) for adults and infants. Today's Diet Differs from the Paleolithic Diet Studies of Paleolithic nutrition and modern hunter-gatherer populations suggest that humans evolved on a diet different from today's typical North American diet. The diet of hunter-gatherers was lower in total and saturated fat and contained small but roughly equal amounts of omega-6 (n-6) and omega-3 (n-3) long-chain fatty acids, giving an n-6/n-3 ratio of about 1:1. Paleolithic humans ate diets containing appreciable amounts of omega-3 fatty acids provided by plants and the fat of wild game, which is particularly high in ALA compared with grain-fed and pasture beef (86,87). Technological developments over the last 100 years have contributed to a shift in fat consumption patterns. Specifically, the intakes of trans fatty acids, found mainly in products made with hydrogenated vegetable oils, and omega-6 fatty acids, found in vegetable oils and animal products derived from grain-fed livestock, have increased over the past century. Compared with the Paleolithic diet, the modern North American diet is low in omega-3 fatty acids and high in total fat, saturated fat, omega-6 fatty acids and trans fatty acids (88). Importance of Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Adults and Infants Chapter 3 F LAX – A Health and Nutrition Primer 29 Omega-6 Fatty Acids Dominate the Modern Diet Linoleic acid constitutes about 88%, while omega-3 fatty acids constitute about 10% of total polyunsaturated fat intake in the United States. The average intakes of these fatty acids by people of all ages living in the United States are as follows: linoleic acid, 12.9 g per day (5.7% of energy); ALA, 1.3 g/day (0.6% of energy); docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), about 0.1 g/day (<0.05% of energy). (Refer to Chapter 2 for a description of these fatty acids.) The intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is so low that its value is marked with an asterisk in U.S. food consumption tables, denoting an intake that is greater than zero but less than 0.05 g/day (89). By comparison, Canadians consume slightly less linoleic acid (about 10 g/day) and slightly more ALA (1.9 g/day), based on surveys of the Quebec population and pregnant women in British Columbia (90,91). These findings show the dominant position of linoleic acid in the Canadian and U.S. diets. Current Dietary Ratio of Omega-6 to Omega-3 Fatty Acids Typical U.S. diets are high in omega-6 fatty acids and low in omega-3 fatty acids compared with the Paleolithic diet on which humans evolved, resulting in an n-6/n-3 ratio of about 9:1 (86,88). The n-6/n-3 ratio may be as high as 17:1 in the overall Western diet (92). People with high intakes of meat, French fries, some fast-food products and foods fried in omega-6-rich vegetable oils will have a higher n-6/n-3 ratio than average. The current high level of omega-6 fatty acids in the food supply is a concern, because omega-6 fatty acids can interfere with the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA. Furthermore, diets high in omega-6 fatty acids lead to high levels of arachidonic acid in membrane phospholipids, which, over time, result in an excess production of eicosanoids that promote inflammation. Overproduction of these pro-inflammatory eicosanoids may contribute to hardening of the arteries and other chronic conditions. Eating less omega-6 fatty acids and more omega-3 fatty acids may help lower the risk of chronic diseases like heart disease and cancer. 30 Recommended Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio Health Canada recommends an n-6/n-3 ratio of 4:1 to 10:1, particularly for infants and pregnant and lactating women (93). A joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) committee recommends an n-6/n-3 ratio of between 5:1 and 10:1 and advises individuals consuming diets with a higher ratio, to consume more foods containing omega-3 fatty acids such as green leafy vegetables, legumes and fish and other seafood (94). The U.S. Institute of Medicine supports a ratio of 5:1 (21). Given current fatty acid intakes (89), there is ample room for improving the ratio by eating less omega-6 fats and more omega-3 fats, including ALA. Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio in Flax ALA comprises about 57% of the total fatty acids in flax, whereas the omega-6 fatty acids comprise about 16%. Thus, flax contains more than three times as much omega-3 as omega-6 fatty acids, giving an n-6/n-3 ratio of 0.3:1 (6). By comparison, the n-6/n-3 ratio for corn oil is 58:1; for soybean oil, 7:1; and for canola oil, 2:1. The high level of ALA in flax makes it a good source of omega-3 fatty acids in the North American diet. Consuming flax or foods rich in ALA, such as omega-3-enriched eggs derived from hens fed flax, increases omega-3 fatty acid intake and improves the dietary n-6/n-3 ratio (95). Recommended Dietary Intakes of ALA The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) published recommended intakes of essential fatty acids in September 2002, acknowledging the essential nature of ALA in the human diet and the contribution of all omega-3 fatty acids to human health (21). The IOM's recommended dietary intakes were developed in cooperation with Health Canada and replace the Canadian Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs). In its 2002 report, the IOM set an Adequate Intake for the essential fatty acids ALA and linoleic acid, based on the median daily intake of healthy people who are not likely to be deficient in these nutrients. The Adequate Intakes of ALA are shown in Table 8. The Adequate Intake is 1.6 g ALA per day for men and 1.1 g ALA per day for women. Pregnant women should consume 1.4 g ALA daily to meet the needs of the developing fetus. Lactating women should consume 1.3 g ALA daily to ensure an adequate concentration of this essential fatty acid in their breast milk. F LAX – A Health and Nutrition Primer 31 Adequate Intakes were set only for ALA, not EPA and DHA. The reason for this is that, strictly speaking, ALA is the only true " essential " omega-3 fatty acid in our diet, being required in the foods we eat because our bodies cannot make it. Because EPA and DHA can be made from ALA, they are not considered " essential " nutrients in the strictest sense. When EPA and DHA are called " essential fatty acids " in the medical literature, the authors usually mean that EPA and DHA are " important " or " vital. " However, there is no disagreement about the importance or essentiality of DHA in the development of infants, who are capable of making some, but perhaps not a sufficient amount of DHA from ALA (33,84). TABLE 8 Adequate Intakes of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) for children, adolescents, adults and pregnant and lactating womena Life Stage Age Adequate Intake of ALA years grams/day Children (both sexes) 1–3 0.7 4–8 0.9 Boys and Men 9 –13 1.2 14–18 1.6 19+ 1.6 Girls and Women 9–13 1.0 14–18 1.1 19+ 1.1 Pregnant 14–50 1.4 Lactating 14–50 1.3 aSource: Institute of Medicine (21). 32 Are We Consuming Enough ALA? The Institute of Medicine's recommended Adequate Intakes of ALA reflect the median intakes of ALA by U.S. men and women over 20 years of age (21). Are these intakes ideal? No, according to a group of fatty acid experts who met in Bethesda, land, in 1999. This distinguished group of scientists from around the world met to discuss the roles of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in human health. The group concluded that people should consume more ALA, EPA and DHA and less linoleic acid. They cited a concern that more omega-3 fats are needed in the diet to limit the adverse effects of too much arachidonic acid and its eicosanoids. They called for a daily ALA intake of 2.22 g, a figure more than double the IOM's recommended intake for women (96). Although questions remain about the ideal intake of ALA and other omega-3 fatty acids, evidence mounts that North Americans will benefit from dietary changes that increase their intake of ALA and other omega-3 fats and reduce their intake of linoleic acid (62,86,88,92,97). Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Infant Formula The optimal fatty acid composition of infant formula has not been determined. Prior to the 1990s, most infant formulas contained low levels of ALA. Today, virtually all infant formulas contain ALA obtained mainly from soybean oil. The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations does not specify a minimum or maximum level of ALA in infant formulas at the present time. The Food and Drug Administration has stated it has no objections to the addition of DHA and arachidonic acid to formula for term infants (98). Experts agree that infant formulas should be designed to approximate the fatty acid composition of breast milk and include omega-3 fatty acids (99). Infants may have a unique need for essential fatty acids, particularly ALA, which is the most prevalent omega-3 fatty acid in human milk (66,67,100), constituting between 0.6 and 1.6% of the total fatty acids in breast milk. Given the importance of all omega-3 fatty acids in the diets of infants, the IOM set an Adequate Intake of 0.5 g of omega-3 fatty acids per day during the first 12 months of life (21). The n-6/n-3 ratio of infant formula may be especially important, as the relative amounts of these fatty acids influence the amounts of DHA and arachidonic acid in tissues (101). F LAX – A Health and Nutrition Primer 33 Food Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids ALA is found in plants, animals, plankton and marine species (68). Up to 80% of the fatty acids in leafy green plants is in the form of ALA; but because their overall fat content is low, leafy plants do not contribute significant amounts of ALA to our diets (33). Flax is the richest source of ALA in the North American diet (102). ALA is also found in the fats and oils of perilla, hemp, canola, wheat germ and soybeans; in nuts such as butternuts and walnuts; in omega-3-enriched eggs; and in purslane (103–106). Fish contain only trace amounts of ALA, although some species of fish, particularly fatty marine fish such as salmon, mackerel and herring, are rich in EPA and DHA (102). Table 9 shows the ALA content of some foods. EPA and DHA are found mainly in fatty fish such as mackerel, salmon, tuna, herring, lake trout and anchovy (102). Other sources include fish oil capsules; marine algae, which are rich in DHA but contain negligible amounts of the other n-3 fatty acids (82,107); and omega-3-enriched eggs derived from laying hens fed a ration containing either microalgae, which increase the DHA content of the yolk (108), or flax, which increases the ALA, docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and DHA content of the yolk (47). 34 TABLE 9 Food sources of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)a Food Serving size ALA g Fats and oils Perilla oil 1 tbsp 8.9b Flax oil 1 tbsp 8.0c Hemp oil 1 tbsp 2.8d Ground flax 1 tbsp 1.8 Canola oil 1 tbsp 1.3 Soybean oil 1 tbsp 0.9 Olive oil 1 tbsp 0.1 Nuts Walnuts, English 1/2 oz 1.3 Butternuts, dried 1/2 oz 1.2 Eggs Chicken, omega-3-enriched 1 large 0.34e Chicken, regular, large 1 large 0.02 Plants Soybeans, green, raw 1/2 cup 0.48 Purslane, cooked 1/2 cup 0.2 Meat and Poultry Beef, T-bone steak, broiled 3 oz 0.18 Pork, wiener 1 wiener 0.12 Beef, ground, patties, broiled 3 oz 0.07 Chicken, breast, roasted 1/2 breast 0.03 Fish and Shellfish Shrimp, breaded and fried 3 oz 0.23 Mackerel, cooked 3 oz 0.10 Salmon, cooked 3 oz 0.04 aUnless otherwise noted, data were obtained from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (103). bNettleton (104). cFlax Council of Canada (6). dHemp Oil Canada, Inc. (106). eAverage of 5 brands of omega-3-enriched eggs (105). Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
Guest guest Posted September 11, 2005 Report Share Posted September 11, 2005 > What are the best food sources for linoleic acid and linolenic acid? > > --------------------------- Hi , I think people eating Western diets get plenty of linoleic acid. The best linolenic sources are flax and salmon. Below is an article about alpha linolenic acid. Diane In recent years, some nutrition experts have expressed concern that the typical North American diet provides too much omega-6 and not enough omega-3 fatty acids. This chapter describes the current levels of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the modern diet and discusses the recommended dietary intakes of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) for adults and infants. Today's Diet Differs from the Paleolithic Diet Studies of Paleolithic nutrition and modern hunter-gatherer populations suggest that humans evolved on a diet different from today's typical North American diet. The diet of hunter-gatherers was lower in total and saturated fat and contained small but roughly equal amounts of omega-6 (n-6) and omega-3 (n-3) long-chain fatty acids, giving an n-6/n-3 ratio of about 1:1. Paleolithic humans ate diets containing appreciable amounts of omega-3 fatty acids provided by plants and the fat of wild game, which is particularly high in ALA compared with grain-fed and pasture beef (86,87). Technological developments over the last 100 years have contributed to a shift in fat consumption patterns. Specifically, the intakes of trans fatty acids, found mainly in products made with hydrogenated vegetable oils, and omega-6 fatty acids, found in vegetable oils and animal products derived from grain-fed livestock, have increased over the past century. Compared with the Paleolithic diet, the modern North American diet is low in omega-3 fatty acids and high in total fat, saturated fat, omega-6 fatty acids and trans fatty acids (88). Importance of Omega-3 Fatty Acids for Adults and Infants Chapter 3 F LAX – A Health and Nutrition Primer 29 Omega-6 Fatty Acids Dominate the Modern Diet Linoleic acid constitutes about 88%, while omega-3 fatty acids constitute about 10% of total polyunsaturated fat intake in the United States. The average intakes of these fatty acids by people of all ages living in the United States are as follows: linoleic acid, 12.9 g per day (5.7% of energy); ALA, 1.3 g/day (0.6% of energy); docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), about 0.1 g/day (<0.05% of energy). (Refer to Chapter 2 for a description of these fatty acids.) The intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is so low that its value is marked with an asterisk in U.S. food consumption tables, denoting an intake that is greater than zero but less than 0.05 g/day (89). By comparison, Canadians consume slightly less linoleic acid (about 10 g/day) and slightly more ALA (1.9 g/day), based on surveys of the Quebec population and pregnant women in British Columbia (90,91). These findings show the dominant position of linoleic acid in the Canadian and U.S. diets. Current Dietary Ratio of Omega-6 to Omega-3 Fatty Acids Typical U.S. diets are high in omega-6 fatty acids and low in omega-3 fatty acids compared with the Paleolithic diet on which humans evolved, resulting in an n-6/n-3 ratio of about 9:1 (86,88). The n-6/n-3 ratio may be as high as 17:1 in the overall Western diet (92). People with high intakes of meat, French fries, some fast-food products and foods fried in omega-6-rich vegetable oils will have a higher n-6/n-3 ratio than average. The current high level of omega-6 fatty acids in the food supply is a concern, because omega-6 fatty acids can interfere with the conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA. Furthermore, diets high in omega-6 fatty acids lead to high levels of arachidonic acid in membrane phospholipids, which, over time, result in an excess production of eicosanoids that promote inflammation. Overproduction of these pro-inflammatory eicosanoids may contribute to hardening of the arteries and other chronic conditions. Eating less omega-6 fatty acids and more omega-3 fatty acids may help lower the risk of chronic diseases like heart disease and cancer. 30 Recommended Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio Health Canada recommends an n-6/n-3 ratio of 4:1 to 10:1, particularly for infants and pregnant and lactating women (93). A joint Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization (FAO/WHO) committee recommends an n-6/n-3 ratio of between 5:1 and 10:1 and advises individuals consuming diets with a higher ratio, to consume more foods containing omega-3 fatty acids such as green leafy vegetables, legumes and fish and other seafood (94). The U.S. Institute of Medicine supports a ratio of 5:1 (21). Given current fatty acid intakes (89), there is ample room for improving the ratio by eating less omega-6 fats and more omega-3 fats, including ALA. Omega-6/Omega-3 Fatty Acid Ratio in Flax ALA comprises about 57% of the total fatty acids in flax, whereas the omega-6 fatty acids comprise about 16%. Thus, flax contains more than three times as much omega-3 as omega-6 fatty acids, giving an n-6/n-3 ratio of 0.3:1 (6). By comparison, the n-6/n-3 ratio for corn oil is 58:1; for soybean oil, 7:1; and for canola oil, 2:1. The high level of ALA in flax makes it a good source of omega-3 fatty acids in the North American diet. Consuming flax or foods rich in ALA, such as omega-3-enriched eggs derived from hens fed flax, increases omega-3 fatty acid intake and improves the dietary n-6/n-3 ratio (95). Recommended Dietary Intakes of ALA The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) published recommended intakes of essential fatty acids in September 2002, acknowledging the essential nature of ALA in the human diet and the contribution of all omega-3 fatty acids to human health (21). The IOM's recommended dietary intakes were developed in cooperation with Health Canada and replace the Canadian Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs). In its 2002 report, the IOM set an Adequate Intake for the essential fatty acids ALA and linoleic acid, based on the median daily intake of healthy people who are not likely to be deficient in these nutrients. The Adequate Intakes of ALA are shown in Table 8. The Adequate Intake is 1.6 g ALA per day for men and 1.1 g ALA per day for women. Pregnant women should consume 1.4 g ALA daily to meet the needs of the developing fetus. Lactating women should consume 1.3 g ALA daily to ensure an adequate concentration of this essential fatty acid in their breast milk. F LAX – A Health and Nutrition Primer 31 Adequate Intakes were set only for ALA, not EPA and DHA. The reason for this is that, strictly speaking, ALA is the only true " essential " omega-3 fatty acid in our diet, being required in the foods we eat because our bodies cannot make it. Because EPA and DHA can be made from ALA, they are not considered " essential " nutrients in the strictest sense. When EPA and DHA are called " essential fatty acids " in the medical literature, the authors usually mean that EPA and DHA are " important " or " vital. " However, there is no disagreement about the importance or essentiality of DHA in the development of infants, who are capable of making some, but perhaps not a sufficient amount of DHA from ALA (33,84). TABLE 8 Adequate Intakes of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) for children, adolescents, adults and pregnant and lactating womena Life Stage Age Adequate Intake of ALA years grams/day Children (both sexes) 1–3 0.7 4–8 0.9 Boys and Men 9 –13 1.2 14–18 1.6 19+ 1.6 Girls and Women 9–13 1.0 14–18 1.1 19+ 1.1 Pregnant 14–50 1.4 Lactating 14–50 1.3 aSource: Institute of Medicine (21). 32 Are We Consuming Enough ALA? The Institute of Medicine's recommended Adequate Intakes of ALA reflect the median intakes of ALA by U.S. men and women over 20 years of age (21). Are these intakes ideal? No, according to a group of fatty acid experts who met in Bethesda, land, in 1999. This distinguished group of scientists from around the world met to discuss the roles of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in human health. The group concluded that people should consume more ALA, EPA and DHA and less linoleic acid. They cited a concern that more omega-3 fats are needed in the diet to limit the adverse effects of too much arachidonic acid and its eicosanoids. They called for a daily ALA intake of 2.22 g, a figure more than double the IOM's recommended intake for women (96). Although questions remain about the ideal intake of ALA and other omega-3 fatty acids, evidence mounts that North Americans will benefit from dietary changes that increase their intake of ALA and other omega-3 fats and reduce their intake of linoleic acid (62,86,88,92,97). Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Infant Formula The optimal fatty acid composition of infant formula has not been determined. Prior to the 1990s, most infant formulas contained low levels of ALA. Today, virtually all infant formulas contain ALA obtained mainly from soybean oil. The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations does not specify a minimum or maximum level of ALA in infant formulas at the present time. The Food and Drug Administration has stated it has no objections to the addition of DHA and arachidonic acid to formula for term infants (98). Experts agree that infant formulas should be designed to approximate the fatty acid composition of breast milk and include omega-3 fatty acids (99). Infants may have a unique need for essential fatty acids, particularly ALA, which is the most prevalent omega-3 fatty acid in human milk (66,67,100), constituting between 0.6 and 1.6% of the total fatty acids in breast milk. Given the importance of all omega-3 fatty acids in the diets of infants, the IOM set an Adequate Intake of 0.5 g of omega-3 fatty acids per day during the first 12 months of life (21). The n-6/n-3 ratio of infant formula may be especially important, as the relative amounts of these fatty acids influence the amounts of DHA and arachidonic acid in tissues (101). F LAX – A Health and Nutrition Primer 33 Food Sources of Omega-3 Fatty Acids ALA is found in plants, animals, plankton and marine species (68). Up to 80% of the fatty acids in leafy green plants is in the form of ALA; but because their overall fat content is low, leafy plants do not contribute significant amounts of ALA to our diets (33). Flax is the richest source of ALA in the North American diet (102). ALA is also found in the fats and oils of perilla, hemp, canola, wheat germ and soybeans; in nuts such as butternuts and walnuts; in omega-3-enriched eggs; and in purslane (103–106). Fish contain only trace amounts of ALA, although some species of fish, particularly fatty marine fish such as salmon, mackerel and herring, are rich in EPA and DHA (102). Table 9 shows the ALA content of some foods. EPA and DHA are found mainly in fatty fish such as mackerel, salmon, tuna, herring, lake trout and anchovy (102). Other sources include fish oil capsules; marine algae, which are rich in DHA but contain negligible amounts of the other n-3 fatty acids (82,107); and omega-3-enriched eggs derived from laying hens fed a ration containing either microalgae, which increase the DHA content of the yolk (108), or flax, which increases the ALA, docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and DHA content of the yolk (47). 34 TABLE 9 Food sources of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA)a Food Serving size ALA g Fats and oils Perilla oil 1 tbsp 8.9b Flax oil 1 tbsp 8.0c Hemp oil 1 tbsp 2.8d Ground flax 1 tbsp 1.8 Canola oil 1 tbsp 1.3 Soybean oil 1 tbsp 0.9 Olive oil 1 tbsp 0.1 Nuts Walnuts, English 1/2 oz 1.3 Butternuts, dried 1/2 oz 1.2 Eggs Chicken, omega-3-enriched 1 large 0.34e Chicken, regular, large 1 large 0.02 Plants Soybeans, green, raw 1/2 cup 0.48 Purslane, cooked 1/2 cup 0.2 Meat and Poultry Beef, T-bone steak, broiled 3 oz 0.18 Pork, wiener 1 wiener 0.12 Beef, ground, patties, broiled 3 oz 0.07 Chicken, breast, roasted 1/2 breast 0.03 Fish and Shellfish Shrimp, breaded and fried 3 oz 0.23 Mackerel, cooked 3 oz 0.10 Salmon, cooked 3 oz 0.04 aUnless otherwise noted, data were obtained from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (103). bNettleton (104). cFlax Council of Canada (6). dHemp Oil Canada, Inc. (106). eAverage of 5 brands of omega-3-enriched eggs (105). Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
Guest guest Posted September 11, 2005 Report Share Posted September 11, 2005 Hi All, My favorite source of the information is: http://www.freshhempfoods.com/nutrition/comp-table.html = Oils and meat fats. --- berko5517 <michelleberkovitz@...> wrote: > What are the best food sources for linoleic acid and linolenic acid? > > > > > > Hi All, > > > > Two well known omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids seem to be > important for avoiding > > pneumonia. See the pdf-available below paper excerpts. > > > > Anwar T Merchant, C Curhan, B Rimm, Walter C Willett, > and Wafaie W Fawzi > > Intake of n–6 and n–3 fatty acids and fish and risk of community- > acquired pneumonia > > in US men > > Am J Clin Nutr 2005 82: 668-674 > > > > ... We prospectively evaluated 38 378 male US health professionals > aged 44–79 y at > > the outset. We updated medical and lifestyle information > biennially through > > questionnaires and diet every 4 y with the use of a validated food- > frequency > > questionnaire. We excluded men who reported pneumonia, myocardial > infarction, > > stroke, other heart disease, arterial surgery, cancer, or asthma > before 1990 or > > those with incomplete dietary data. Community-acquired pneumonia > was determined by > > blinded medical record review of chest radiographs. > > > > Results: During 10 y of follow-up, there were 441 new cases of > nonfatal > > community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumonia risk was lower in men in > the highest > > energy-adjusted quintiles of intake than in men in the lowest > quintiles of intake of > > linoleic acid [multivariate relative risk (RR): 0.70; 95% CI: > 0.51, 0.96; P for > > trend = 0.01] and -linolenic acid (multivariate RR: 0.68; 95% CI: > 0.50, 0.93; P for > > trend = 0.01). Pneumonia risk decreased 4% for every 1-g/d > increase in linoleic acid > > intake (multivariate RR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.93, 0.99). Pneumonia risk > was reduced by > > 31% for every 1-g/d increase in -linolenic acid intake > (multivariate RR: 0.69; 95% > > CI: 0.51, 0.93). Intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid and > docosahexaenoic acid were not > > significantly related to pneumonia risk. ... > > > > ... The relation between fish intake and pneumonia risk was > inverse but > > nonsignificant. The multivariate RR of community-acquired > pneumonia for men eating > > fish 5 or more times per week compared with those eating fish less > than once per > > month was 0.59 (95% CI: 0.34, 1.02; P for trend = 0.18; Table 4). > The association > > between long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake and pneumonia risk was > not significant. The > > multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia comparing men in > the extreme > > quintiles of long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake was 0.77 (95% CI: > 0.44, 1.36; P for > > trend = 0.41; Table 4). > > > > Al Pater, PhD; email: old542000@y... > > > > > > > > > > ______________________________________________________ > > Click here to donate to the Hurricane Katrina relief effort. > > http://store./redcross-donate3/ > > > Al Pater, PhD; email: old542000@... ______________________________________________________ for Good Watch the Hurricane Katrina Shelter From The Storm concert http://advision.webevents./shelter Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
Guest guest Posted September 11, 2005 Report Share Posted September 11, 2005 Hi All, My favorite source of the information is: http://www.freshhempfoods.com/nutrition/comp-table.html = Oils and meat fats. --- berko5517 <michelleberkovitz@...> wrote: > What are the best food sources for linoleic acid and linolenic acid? > > > > > > Hi All, > > > > Two well known omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids seem to be > important for avoiding > > pneumonia. See the pdf-available below paper excerpts. > > > > Anwar T Merchant, C Curhan, B Rimm, Walter C Willett, > and Wafaie W Fawzi > > Intake of n–6 and n–3 fatty acids and fish and risk of community- > acquired pneumonia > > in US men > > Am J Clin Nutr 2005 82: 668-674 > > > > ... We prospectively evaluated 38 378 male US health professionals > aged 44–79 y at > > the outset. We updated medical and lifestyle information > biennially through > > questionnaires and diet every 4 y with the use of a validated food- > frequency > > questionnaire. We excluded men who reported pneumonia, myocardial > infarction, > > stroke, other heart disease, arterial surgery, cancer, or asthma > before 1990 or > > those with incomplete dietary data. Community-acquired pneumonia > was determined by > > blinded medical record review of chest radiographs. > > > > Results: During 10 y of follow-up, there were 441 new cases of > nonfatal > > community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumonia risk was lower in men in > the highest > > energy-adjusted quintiles of intake than in men in the lowest > quintiles of intake of > > linoleic acid [multivariate relative risk (RR): 0.70; 95% CI: > 0.51, 0.96; P for > > trend = 0.01] and -linolenic acid (multivariate RR: 0.68; 95% CI: > 0.50, 0.93; P for > > trend = 0.01). Pneumonia risk decreased 4% for every 1-g/d > increase in linoleic acid > > intake (multivariate RR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.93, 0.99). Pneumonia risk > was reduced by > > 31% for every 1-g/d increase in -linolenic acid intake > (multivariate RR: 0.69; 95% > > CI: 0.51, 0.93). Intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid and > docosahexaenoic acid were not > > significantly related to pneumonia risk. ... > > > > ... The relation between fish intake and pneumonia risk was > inverse but > > nonsignificant. The multivariate RR of community-acquired > pneumonia for men eating > > fish 5 or more times per week compared with those eating fish less > than once per > > month was 0.59 (95% CI: 0.34, 1.02; P for trend = 0.18; Table 4). > The association > > between long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake and pneumonia risk was > not significant. The > > multivariate RR of community-acquired pneumonia comparing men in > the extreme > > quintiles of long-chain n–3 fatty acid intake was 0.77 (95% CI: > 0.44, 1.36; P for > > trend = 0.41; Table 4). > > > > Al Pater, PhD; email: old542000@y... > > > > > > > > > > ______________________________________________________ > > Click here to donate to the Hurricane Katrina relief effort. > > http://store./redcross-donate3/ > > > Al Pater, PhD; email: old542000@... ______________________________________________________ for Good Watch the Hurricane Katrina Shelter From The Storm concert http://advision.webevents./shelter Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
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