Malaria

http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/2295/

html

1902 - Sir Ross: Nobel Prize in 1902 for

his discovery that certain

mosquitoes transmit malaria. 1988. PMID: 3293166

1904 - Crawford Gorgas (1854-1920) was

sent to Panama as chief

sanitary officer of the Panama Canal Commission to

combat yellow fever and

malaria, which were the greatest obstacles to the

building of the Panama

Canal. In 1914 he was appointed surgeon general of

the U.S. Army. He was

retired from the army in 1918 and, until his

death, directed the Rockefeller

Foundation's work on yellow fever.

1910 - 1952 - Taiwan (China) - A large scale

chemotherapy program was

initiated in 1910 following Koch's method. The

inhabitants in the highly

malarious area were subject to monthly blood

examination and those positive

for malaria parasites were compulsorily treated

with antimalaria drugs. This

program was continued until 1944. Throughout the

history of malaria control

in Taiwan, other control measures were also

applied. They were: personal

protection, source reduction and antilarval

operations. All these methods

were proven to be effective, but with limitations.

The availability of DDT

and other residual insecticides in the 1940s

marked a new era for malaria

control in the world, as well as in Taiwan. A

6-year malaria eradication

program using the DDT residual house spraying

method was launched in 1952

and then followed by vigorous malaria surveillance

activities which finally

eliminated all the remaining foci of transmission.

PMID: 2056561

1913 - Rockefeller Foundation - RF established The

International Health

Board (known as the International Health

Commission until 1916, when its

name changed to the International Health Board)

for the purpose of extending

the work of the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission

for the Eradication of

Hookworm Disease. In addition to hookworm, The

Board's early public health

activities included control of yellow fever,

malaria, tuberculosis, public

health education, virus studies and related

research. In 1951, the

International Health Division was merged with the

medical sciences program

and public health activity was de-emphasized.

http://www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/rf.html

1914 - Fraentzel Celli (1878-1958). Married

Angello Celli in 1899. They

had long been studying the mode of transmission of

the malaria infection and

in 1898 they had identified the mosquito Anopheles

as the vector of the

malaria parasite. She got enthusiastically

involved both in the scientific

work and in the antimalarial campaign which Celli

promoted in the Agro

Romano. After her husband's death in 1914 she

continued as a promoter of the

antimalarial campaign, co-operating with the Red

Cross and other

institutions. 1999. PMID: 10645553

Note:

1913 - Red Cross - The RF board on December 5

makes its first grant:

$100,000 to the American Red Cross for the

purchase of property in

Washington, D.C., for its headquarters and for the

building of " a memorial

to commemorate the services of the women of the

United States in caring for

the sick and wounded in the Civil War. "

http://tryps.rockefeller.edu/crosslab_theobaldsmit

1915 -Malaria, like hookworm, attracts Foundation

interest. RF secretary

Jerome D. Greene [formerly of Harvard] calls

malaria " probably the heaviest

handicap on the welfare and economic efficiency of

the human race. "

Beginning with pilot projects in Arkansas and

Mississippi, RF establishes

research centers in 25 locations in Latin America,

Europe, the Near East,

and Asia. http://www.rockfound.org/frameset2.html

1915 - Theobald - declined the

position of director of The

Rockefeller Institute, at its founding in 1901.

However, after working for

several years in Washington and at Harvard Medical

School, he joined the

Princeton laboratories of the Rockefeller

Institute in 1915, where he

remained as director of the Department of Animal

Pathology until his

official retirement in 1929.

h.html

1920's - China - Antimalarial work in China: a

historical perspective.

Systematic scientific studies of malaria in China

did not begin until the

1920s. The persistence of misconceptions about the

disease and the absence

of political stability, funds and trained

personnel were obstacles to any

large scale antimalarial campaigns. In the 1920s

and 30s, antimalarial

efforts involved epidemiologic studies,

environmental alterations, and

treatment of patients. 1998. PMID: 9653729

Note:

1914 - RF China - The China Medical Board (CMB),

in 1914, inaugurated

Rockefeller Foundation involvement in China with a

program of grant

assistance to medical schools and hospitals, and

schools and colleges

teaching science, most of which were operated by

Protestant missions.

http://www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/china3.html

Note:

1921 -Peking Union Medical College [PUMC] - RF

China - D. Rockefeller,

Jr.'s attendance at the PUMC dedication.

Note:

1928 - After 1928, the PUMC and the Rockefeller

Foundation's International

Health Board/Division constituted the chief

vehicles for Rockefeller

philanthropic assistance to medicine in China.

1929 - 1937 - Outbreaks of malaria in Egypt, the

United States, and China

between 1929 and 1937 were attributed to needle

sharing and intravenous

injection of opioids. These reports suggest that

both needle sharing and

intravenous drug use were common by 1937. 1997.

PMID: 9250947

Note:

1930's - Rockefeller Foundation - RF begins its

attack on another public

health hazard-schistosomiasis, a disease caused by

the liver fluke carried

by snails living in canals of irrigated lands-with

the publication of a

study of the disease in Egypt.

Note:

2000 - HCV - The role of parenteral

antischistosomal therapy in the spread

of hepatitis C virus in Egypt. The risk factor for

HCV transmission that

specifically sets Egypt apart from other countries

is a personal history of

parenteral antischistosomal therapy (PAT). PMID:

10752705

WWII

-------

1941 - 1945 - The malaria frontline. Pioneering

malaria research by the

Australian Army in World War II. Documents at the

Australian Academy of

Science and the United States National Academy of

Sciences reveal that

wartime research by the Australian Army at Cairns

had a significant impact

on United States malaria research programs, as

well as providing a

scientific basis for drug control of malaria.

1997. PMID: 9087191

1941 - 1945 - Malaria - Australian army infected

troops and internees in

second world war. 1999. PMID: 10231245

1941 - The for biomedical research after World War

II. After Pearl Harbor

1941 and the Japanese conquest of the Netherlands

East Indies the U.S. were

confronted with both a war in the malaria-ridden

South Pacific and the loss

of the sources of quinine. This situation gave

birth to a ative

Wartime Program with the participation of national

scientific and medical

organizations, universities, hospitals,

industries, and the

Armed Forces. It worked as a flexible system of

coordinated and cooperative

units subsidized by the U.S. Government. In the

course of WWII malaria

casualties dropped beyond expectation due to an

improved usage of quinacrine

(Atebrine) which was based on new knowledge in

pharmacokinetics.

Furthermore, basic knowledge in malariology was

improved, and a

mass-screening resulted in new antimalarial drugs,

such as chloroquine.

1999. PMID: 10432779

1942 - 1943 - Malaria was the major cause of

casualties among allied forces

in the South West Pacific campaigns during 1942

and 1943, despite the

suppressive use of quinine and later atebrin.

Clinical experiments

undertaken at the Land Headquarters Medical

Research Unit of the Australian

Army in Cairns, under the direction of Neil

Hamilton Fairley, demonstrated

that atebrin was able to provide complete

protection against vivax and

falciparum malaria. Fairley presented the

experimental results to army

commanders in a specially convened conference at

Atherton, Queensland, in

June 1944 and persuaded the army that the solution

to the malaria problem

was for men to take 1 tablet (100 mg) of atebrin

each day with unvarying

regularity while in a malarious area and for 4

weeks afterwards.

Subsequently, rigid atebrin discipline was adopted

and the incidence of the

disease amongst Australian soldiers in New Guinea

during 1945 fell to the

lowest levels ever recorded to that time by

non-immune troops operating for

extended periods in highly endemic malarious

areas. The one exception to

this unprecedented achievement was during the

Aitape-Wewak campaign when an

epidemic of falciparum malaria developed despite

the use of suppressive

atebrin. An investigation of this epidemic,

involving chemotherapeutic

experiments of malaria derived from specially

selected patients evacuated to

Cairns, showed that some of the parasites were

resistant to atebrin. 1996.

PMID: 8982785

1943 - 1946 - Australia - Malaria and the Land

Headquarters Medical Research

Unit, 1943-1946. 1994 PMID: 8022356

1943 - 1946 - Australia's contribution to the

chemotherapy of human

parasitic infections. The demands of war ensured

that the Army Malaria Unit

at Cairns carried out meticulous and exceptional

studies to evaluate new

antimalarial compounds. Not only were they able to

prove the effectiveness

of atebrin, Proguanil and chloroquine as

prophylactics, they also obtained

much new information on the pharmacokinetics of

antimalarials and about the

infection itself. Full recognition of these

pioneering studies involving

over 1000 volunteers infected with malaria, which

can never be repeated, has

not been appreciated. 1995. PMID: 8847165

Post WWII

--------------

1945 - NIH - The experiences of the Malaria

Program were used by one of its

chief architects, A. , to transform

the National Institutes of

Health (NIH) into the model medical research

institution whose budget for

extramural programs also allowed for the

nationwide post-war boom of medical

research. 1999. PMID: 10432779

1948 - Specific strain of Anopheles freeborni from

California (F-1) that has

been used extensively in experimental

investigations of malaria for more

than 50 years. 1999. PMID: 10412108

1949 - WHO - Malaria has been one of the main

health problems demanding the

attention of WHO from the time the Organization

was created. This review of

the historical record analyses the different

approaches to the malaria

problem in the past 40 years and shows how WHO

tried to fulfil its

constitutional mandate. 1989. PMID: 2670294

1958 - 1963 - The U.S. Congress established an

intense, time-limited,

worldwide malaria eradication program in 1958 and

assigned operational

responsibility to the U.S. Agency for

International Development (and its

predecessors). When the program was terminated on

schedule in 1963,

approximately $400 million had been consumed and

malaria prevalence had

greatly been reduced. Transmission began to

increase thereafter. The

open-ended WHO global eradication effort began in

1955 ended in 1969 and

consumed approximately $15 million during the

1958-1963 period of progress,

mainly provided by the United States. Intensified

anti-malaria interventions

continued after Congress discontinued direct

support. Although

malariological research was discouraged during the

period of time

limitation, it was embraced as the conceptual

basis for the open-ended

period of intervention that followed. This effort

saved many lives but

expended our ability to intervene against future

epidemics and reduced human

herd immunity. To avoid the " great gamble "

inherent in any ambitious

intervention against this disease, future programs

should be designed to

seek incremental, local antimalaria gains. 1993.

PMID: 8094462

1960 - 1979 - NIH - Korea - A historical review

and prospects of medical

entomology research in Korea. During the first

period (1910-1959), medical

entomology research was initiated by Japanese

workers, and then by U.S. Army

Medical Unit personnels and a few Korean pioneers,

who greatly contributed

to establishing a foundation for medical

entomology in Korea. During the

second period (1960-1979), research activities

were intensively carried out

by the entomology team of the Central Malaria

Eradication Service and staffs

of the Division of Medical Entomology, National

Institute of Health, who

collaborated with WHO-Vector Ecology and Control

Research Unit. 1990. PMID:

2133419

DDT

------

1942 - 1952 - ..to trace important facets of the

early history of DDT

testing from 1942 to 1952 through the archives of

the Rockefeller

Foundation, including the records of the Virus

Laboratory that it operated

in New York City, the Malaria Experiment Station

in Tallahassee, Florida

that it funded, the operations of the Rockefeller

Foundation Health

Commission in newly-liberated North Africa and

southern Italy, and a program

of typhus and malaria control in Mexico.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/PubMed/

html

1942 - 1945 - DDT - Malaria control in Papua New

Guinea in the Second World

War: from disaster to successful prophylaxis and

the dawn of DDT. Australian

forces were involved in warfare in hyperendemic

areas of New Guinea from

early 1942 until late 1945. Initially they were

ill-prepared and suffered

very heavy malaria casualties, even when not

engaged in fighting. As a

result measures were taken to make the supervision

of personal protection

(clothes, suppressive atebrin, repellent, mosquito

nets) a matter for unit

commanders rather than a medical problem.

Malariologists were appointed and

supervised Malaria Control Units, which were moved

in with attacking troops,

and Entomological Sections were established, which

provided advice on

vectors of malaria and other arthropod-borne

diseases. In successive

campaigns the casualties from malaria decreased

substantially, especially

after active operations in particular campaigns

had ended, except in the

Aitape-Wewak area, where field observations

suggested that some strains of

P. falciparum were resistant to the standard dose

of suppressive atebrin.

This was confirmed in experiments on human

volunteers at a malaria research

unit in Australia. 1998. PMID: 9653732

1972 - DDT - large-scale use of DDT had been

abandoned by the malaria

eradication programme in the country [bangladesh].

1989. PMID: 2650901

1997 - DDT - Mexico - DDT has systematically been

used in sanitation

campaigns against malaria in Mexico. PMID: 9074888

Note:

1997 - DDT - Breast Cancer - Recent studies have

implicated exposure to

organochlorines including DDT as a risk factor for

breast cancer in the

United States, Finland, Mexico, and Canada. PMID:

9255576

HBV and Malaria

-----------------------

1971 - HBV - Malaria - Preliminary observations on

the detection of

Australia antigen in the blood of patients from

tropical zones with chronic

malaria. PMID: 5093372

1972 - HBV - Malaria - Australia antigen and

chronic hepatic diseases in the

western African. PMID: 4341131

1974 - HBV - Senegal - Malaria - Comparative study

of the incidence of

Australia antigen and Anopheles activity in seven

villages of Senegal. PMID:

4480451

Note:

1966 - Air Guns - Senegal - Mass vaccination with

the Rockefeller 17 D

[Yellow Fever] stra vaccine in Senegal. Use of

" Ped-o-Jet " . PMID: 5976660

Note:

1942 - Epidemic of post-vaccination hepatitis in

the United States Army.

This outbreak was linked to specific lots of

yellow-fever vaccine stabilized

with human serum. We conclude that hepatitis B

caused the outbreak, that

about 330,000 persons may have been infected.

1987. PMID: 2436048

1983 - HBV - India - The results demonstrate that

other factor(s) (e.g.

immunological) besides malarial infection may be

involved in the maintenance

of a high HBs Ag frequency in Western Maharashtra.

PMID: 6885085

Recent

-----------

1978 - Malaria: a new facet of heroin addiction in

Australia. A case of

vivax malaria is described. The patient, who had

occasionally abused heroin

intravenously, shared injection equipment with an

addict who had previously

contracted malaria in Southeast Asia and who had

failed to complete an

adequate course of treatment. PMID: 366360

1982 - Sickle cell disease, a disease prevalent

among the negroes all over

the world. Its geographical occurrence which is

highest in the African

subcontinent and lowest in the United States

depends on the prevalence of

malaria in the environment and intermarriage of

races. PMID: 7091576

1986 - Epstein-Barr virus and malaria in relation

to Burkitt's lymphoma in

Papua New Guinea. PMID: 3019040

1987 - Which are the appropriate modifications of

existing regulations

designed to prevent the transmission of malaria by

blood transfusion, in

view of the increasing frequency of travel to

endemic areas? PMID: 3300023

1987 - The malaria story in Palestine/Israel and

the experience of the

Tennessee Valley Authority are analyzed in some

detail. In both cases,

direct anti-malaria measures were versatile and

based mostly on reduction of

mosquito breeding and elimination of Anopheles

larvae. Efficient

organization and coordination of anti-malaria

efforts, strenuous research

and understanding of the vector biology, and

accompanying socioeconomic and

agricultural development contributed to successful

campaigns. Malaria

control in other parts of the United States and in

Italy is also considered.

PMID: 3294623

1991 - Malaria - Africa - Movements of potential

parasite carriers from

countries south of the Sahara and therefore that

oases associated with

trans-Saharan trade are vulnerable. PMID: 1786620

1993 - Plasmodium falciparum hepatitis during

malaria epidemic. Australia

antigen was negative in all. Mortality was 12.4%,

due to cerebral malaria.

PMID: 7695667

1993 - Harvard - A detailed genetic map for the X

chromosome of the malaria

vector, Anopheles gambiae. Department of Cellular

and Developmental Biology,

Harvard University. PMID: 8342025

1994 - Subsaharan Africa is dramatically

characterized by the most most

powerful malaria vector system which accounts for

more than 80% of the 120

million clinical cases estimated in the world in

one year. Great

difficulties are experienced in the control of the

disease, while failures,

more or less complete, were recorded in the

control of the transmission.

PMID: 7898958

1995 - Kaposi's sarcoma. Many infections have been

suspected to play a role

in the etiology of KS, including cytomegalovirus,

malaria and, most

recently, a new virus of the herpes family,

identified in AIDS-associated

and classic KS. The present review deals with

epidemiologic data concerning

KS in the Mediterranean and stresses the

opportunity to combine the study of

KS in AIDS as well as non-AIDS patients in order

to shed light on this no

longer rare disease. PMID: 8804445

1997 - Airport malaria in Cairns. We report a

patient with Plasmodium vivax

malaria that was acquired in Cairns in October

1996. Rather than being

" introduced " (i.e., derived from an imported

case), we believe this is

likely to have been a case of " airport malaria "

(i.e., acquired from an

infected mosquito imported in an aircraft). It is,

to our knowledge, the

first report of airport malaria in Australia.

PMID: 9087188

1998 - Malaria - Molecular basis of

beta-thalassemia in the Maldives -

Analysis of haplotypes and frameworks of

chromosomes bearing each

beta-thalassemia mutation suggested that the

origin and spread of these

mutations were reflected by the historical record.

PMID: 9576331

1998 - Republic of Vanuatu: Colonization by both

France and England has left

its numerous marks on this country over the years.

Numerous chronic diseases

with historical complications and malpractice are

encountered. As well,

numerous infectious diseases such as tuberculosis

and malaria are still

endemic. PMID: 9793148

1998 - Genetic diseases in the Mediterranean

region: a historical

perspective. PMID: 9853091

1999 - West Africa and eastern outer islands -

Senegal - These high amounts

of genetic differentiation are discussed in

relation to geographic distance

including large bodies of water, and history of

mosquito settlement, and

insecticide use on the islands. PMID: 10403334

Current Situation

-----------------------

1999 - Malaria. The latest in advice for

travellers. Malaria prevention in

travellers is typically the most complex travel

health issue faced by

practitioners. Although the disease is mainly

confined to the tropical areas

of Africa, Asia and Latin America, it remains a

serious and worsening health

problem. Advice to travellers should include

information on the need for

prompt diagnosis and treatment of febrile illness,

on minimising exposure to

mosquitoes, and the use of repellents and contact

insecticides. A simplified

chemoprophylaxis regimen is chloroquine for

chloroquine sensitive malaria

areas, mefloquine or doxycycline for areas with

chloroquine resistant

malaria and doxycycline for areas with mefloquine

resistant malaria. With

the advent of new self treatment regimens and 'in

the field' rapid

diagnostic tests, self treatment has become a

reasonable option in certain

circumstances. PMID: 10431424

1999 - Malaria remains the single largest threat

to child survival in

sub-Saharan Africa and warrants long-term

investment for control. Previous

malaria distribution maps have been vague and

arbitrary. PMID: 10322323

Summary

-------------

2000 - Resurgent malaria at the millennium:

control strategies in crisis.

Completion of the Panama Canal in 1914 marked the

beginning of an era of

vector control that achieved conspicuous success

against malaria. In 1955

the World Health Organization (WHO) adopted the

controversial Global

Eradication Campaign emphasising DDT

(dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

spraying in homes. The incidence of malaria fell

sharply where the programme

was implemented, but the strategy was not applied

in holoendemic Africa.

This, along with the failure to achieve

eradication in larger tropical

regions, contributed to disillusionment with the

policy. The World Health

Assembly abandoned the eradication strategy in

1969. A resurgence of malaria

began at about that time and today reaches into

areas where eradication or

control had been achieved. A global malaria crisis

looms. In 1993 the WHO

adopted a Global Malaria Control Strategy that

placed priority in control of

disease rather than infection. This formalises a

policy that emphasises

diagnosis and treatment in a primary healthcare

setting, while

de-emphasising spraying of residual insecticides.

The new policy explicitly

stresses malaria in Africa, but expresses the

intent to bring control

programmes around the world into line with the

strategy. This review raises

the argument that a global control strategy

conceived to address the

extraordinary malaria situation in Africa may not

be suitable elsewhere. The

basis of argument lies in the accomplishments of

the Global Eradication

Campaign viewed in an historical and geographical

context. Resurgent malaria

accompanying declining vector control activities

in Asia and the Americas

suggests that the abandonment of residual spraying

may be premature given

the tools now at hand. The inadequacy of vector

control as the primary

instrument of malaria control in holoendemic

Africa does not preclude its

utility in Asia and the Americas. PMID: 10804031

To get [Pub Med] PMID: Study citations listed as

references above just enter

only the PMID 'numbers' at:

National Center for Biotechnology Information

National Library of Medicine -

National Institutes of Health, PubMed.

July 23, 2000

Malaria

----------

Definitions:

Malaria - In humans, the set of diseases caused by

infection by the

protozoans Plasmodium vivax causing the tertian

type, P. Malariae the

quartan type and P. Falciparum the quotidian or

irregular type of disease,

the names referring to the frequency of fevers.

The fevers occur when the

merozoites are released from the erythrocytes. The

organisms are transmitted

by the Anopheles mosquito.

Malaria, Falciparum - The most dangerous type of

malaria. Persons carrying

the sickle cell gene have some protection against

malaria. Persons with a

gene for haemoglobin c (another abnormal

haemoglobin like sickle

haemoglobin), thalassaemia trait or deficiency of

the enzyme glucose

6-phosphate dehydrogenase (g6pd) are thought also

to have partial protection

against malaria.

http://www.graylab.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?

The Numbers

--------------------

1999 - Approximately 300 to 500 million people in

the world are infected

with malaria and between 1.5 and 2.7 million

people die from it every year.

PMID: 10431424

2000 - WHO - Malaria, either alone or in

combination with other diseases, is

estimated to kill between 1.1 and 2.7 million

people worldwide each year,

and over 2,400 million remain at risk. PMID:

10892307

Background

-----------------

1987 - Changes in the geographical distribution of

malaria throughout

history. Climatic changes must have greatly

affected the distribution of

malaria in prehistoric times. Paleobotanical

evidence, snowline depression

studies and information obtained from deep sea

sediment cores, indicate that

southern Europe must have suffered a drop of

summer temperatures of

approximately 9 degrees C during the last glacial

maximum, 18,000 years ago.

Such a drop would have been decisive as regards

the distribution of malaria

and its vectors. If present at all, the disease

would have been confined to

the southernmost parts of the continent but P.

falciparum and today's most

effective vectors--A. labranchiae and A.

sacharovi--would have been excluded

from Europe. In western Asia, summer temperatures

6 degrees C lower than

those of today would have had less effect on the

malaria situation. The

introduction of falciparum malaria in southern

Europe is placed in

Hellenistic and Early Imperial Roman times, based

on paleoclimatological

evidence and historical and medical data. In

America P. falciparum is also

considered a late entrant but vivax and quartan

malaria may have been

introduced in pre-Columbian times. In the Pacific,

the disease is known to

have been spread by man since the Age of Discovery

until contemporary times.

PMID: 3334082

1492 - The European and African migrations, after

Columbus's first trip,

produced an epidemic invasion of influenza,

smallpox, measles, yellow fever,

malaria, diphtheria, typhus, and other diseases

that attacked the

immunologically virgin populations and produced a

very high mortality, with

a diminution of the indigenous population of more

than 90% in many places.

1992. PMID: 1483572

1985 - Malaria in antebellum South Carolina. The

historical investigation of

malaria in South Carolina offers a valuable

opportunity for the medical

anthropologist interested in the interrelationship

between cultural

practices and disease. Malaria was introduced to

the New World by European

settlers and African slaves, and the development

of tidewater rice

cultivation helped create and expand the

conditions necessary for its

spread. Once established, malaria became the

region's most serious endemic

disease, persisting until well into the twentieth

century and cultural

responses to it profoundly influenced antebellum

southern society. PMID:

3904013

1987 - Ledger, a British general

tradesman, was able to achieve that

thanks to his alert spirit of observation, his

(and that of his Bolivian

servant ) long experience of the Andes, and

the chance that brought

them to fall upon a group of exceptional cinchonas

which had grown on an

impervious slope of the Andes. Eventually the

seeds were collected and

Ledger offered them to the British and Dutch

governments. Whereas the

British failed to recognise their importance, the

Dutch did not. They

created extensive plantations in Java from which

the world's demand for

quinine was met, and the Dutch detained the

practical monopoly of its

production. PMID: 3334083

1998 - Malaria in a changing world: Three elements

must be present for

endemic malaria: infected humans, susceptible

mosquitoes and a suitable

climate. All three occur in parts of Australia and

yet this country has

always been a region of marginal malaria

endemicity. With the exception of a

large epidemic in Cairns during the Second World

War, most outbreaks have

occurred in small, isolated populations of the

Northern Territory. It is

stressed that climate change in only one component

in a complex

epidemiological setting, and that other aspects

such as human activity are

probably more important. PMID: 9673873

Past

-------

1850 - 1950 - In the middle of the nineteenth

century a severe and deadly

malaria epidemic occurred first in Mauritius and

then in Reunion Island. It

took a century to bring the disease under control,

but this has in no way

diminished the risk of its re-introduction. 1990.

PMID: 2291690

Note:

1942 - Mauritius - Transmission of swamp fever by

the stable fly. J. Am.

Vet. Med. Assoc. 101(786): 211.

1844 - 1922 - Manson - There have been few

scientists who have had a greater

impact on the history of vector biology than Sir

Manson (1844-1922).

By demonstrating that mosquitoes became infected

with microfilariae in the

process of taking a blood meal, he became the

first to prove an association

between insects and pathogens causing human and

animal diseases. He also

contributed substantially to the discovery of

mosquito transmission of

malaria parasites and was a principal force behind

the founding of the

London School of Tropical Medicine and the Royal

Society of Tropical

Medicine and Hygiene. 1992. PMID: 1402856

1895 - Malaria - This article discusses the

research on blackwater fever

that was undertaken by andre Yersin in 1895.

1995. PMID: 8851059

1898 - Established that malaria was transmitted by

the Anopheles. 1994.

PMID: 7898963

1898 - 1998 - The year 1898 was one of the most

significant years in the

history of malariology. One hundred years later

scientists gathered at the

Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Rome, to

commemorate the Malariology

Centenary. The major contributions of Alphonse

Laveran, Manson,

Ross, Battista Grassi and a number of

scientists of the Italian

School of Malariology to the understanding of the

transmission of malaria by

Anopheles mosquitoes are described. PMID: 10697830

1898 - Italy - First annual report of the Society

for Malaria Studies

(founded in 1898), presented by Angelo Celli on

December 3rd, 1898, to the

first meeting of the Society. 1998. PMID: 10645552

1900 - History of herpetic keratitis include the

close association of

herpetic disease with malaria around the turn of

the century. 1976. PMID:

790618

1901 - 1921 - In 1901 D. Rockefeller founded

the Rockefeller Institute

for Medical Research in New York, the first

institution in the U.S. devoted

to full-time laboratory research on disease and

human physiology. Of course

the Pasteur Institute in France and the Koch

Institute in Germany were

preceding models for the Rockefeller Institute

(now known as Rockefeller

University), but in two decades the Institute

became the source of trained

staff for laboratories of experimental medicine

that the RF funded

throughout the world.

http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/2295/

html

1902 - Sir Ross: Nobel Prize in 1902 for

his discovery that certain

mosquitoes transmit malaria. 1988. PMID: 3293166

1904 - Crawford Gorgas (1854-1920) was

sent to Panama as chief

sanitary officer of the Panama Canal Commission to

combat yellow fever and

malaria, which were the greatest obstacles to the

building of the Panama

Canal. In 1914 he was appointed surgeon general of

the U.S. Army. He was

retired from the army in 1918 and, until his

death, directed the Rockefeller

Foundation's work on yellow fever.

1910 - 1952 - Taiwan (China) - A large scale

chemotherapy program was

initiated in 1910 following Koch's method. The

inhabitants in the highly

malarious area were subject to monthly blood

examination and those positive

for malaria parasites were compulsorily treated

with antimalaria drugs. This

program was continued until 1944. Throughout the

history of malaria control

in Taiwan, other control measures were also

applied. They were: personal

protection, source reduction and antilarval

operations. All these methods

were proven to be effective, but with limitations.

The availability of DDT

and other residual insecticides in the 1940s

marked a new era for malaria

control in the world, as well as in Taiwan. A

6-year malaria eradication

program using the DDT residual house spraying

method was launched in 1952

and then followed by vigorous malaria surveillance

activities which finally

eliminated all the remaining foci of transmission.

PMID: 2056561

1913 - Rockefeller Foundation - RF established The

International Health

Board (known as the International Health

Commission until 1916, when its

name changed to the International Health Board)

for the purpose of extending

the work of the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission

for the Eradication of

Hookworm Disease. In addition to hookworm, The

Board's early public health

activities included control of yellow fever,

malaria, tuberculosis, public

health education, virus studies and related

research. In 1951, the

International Health Division was merged with the

medical sciences program

and public health activity was de-emphasized.

http://www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/rf.html

1914 - Fraentzel Celli (1878-1958). Married

Angello Celli in 1899. They

had long been studying the mode of transmission of

the malaria infection and

in 1898 they had identified the mosquito Anopheles

as the vector of the

malaria parasite. She got enthusiastically

involved both in the scientific

work and in the antimalarial campaign which Celli

promoted in the Agro

Romano. After her husband's death in 1914 she

continued as a promoter of the

antimalarial campaign, co-operating with the Red

Cross and other

institutions. 1999. PMID: 10645553

Note:

1913 - Red Cross - The RF board on December 5

makes its first grant:

$100,000 to the American Red Cross for the

purchase of property in

Washington, D.C., for its headquarters and for the

building of " a memorial

to commemorate the services of the women of the

United States in caring for

the sick and wounded in the Civil War. "

http://tryps.rockefeller.edu/crosslab_theobaldsmit

1915 -Malaria, like hookworm, attracts Foundation

interest. RF secretary

Jerome D. Greene [formerly of Harvard] calls

malaria " probably the heaviest

handicap on the welfare and economic efficiency of

the human race. "

Beginning with pilot projects in Arkansas and

Mississippi, RF establishes

research centers in 25 locations in Latin America,

Europe, the Near East,

and Asia. http://www.rockfound.org/frameset2.html

1915 - Theobald - declined the

position of director of The

Rockefeller Institute, at its founding in 1901.

However, after working for

several years in Washington and at Harvard Medical

School, he joined the

Princeton laboratories of the Rockefeller

Institute in 1915, where he

remained as director of the Department of Animal

Pathology until his

official retirement in 1929.

h.html

1920's - China - Antimalarial work in China: a

historical perspective.

Systematic scientific studies of malaria in China

did not begin until the

1920s. The persistence of misconceptions about the

disease and the absence

of political stability, funds and trained

personnel were obstacles to any

large scale antimalarial campaigns. In the 1920s

and 30s, antimalarial

efforts involved epidemiologic studies,

environmental alterations, and

treatment of patients. 1998. PMID: 9653729

Note:

1914 - RF China - The China Medical Board (CMB),

in 1914, inaugurated

Rockefeller Foundation involvement in China with a

program of grant

assistance to medical schools and hospitals, and

schools and colleges

teaching science, most of which were operated by

Protestant missions.

http://www.rockefeller.edu/archive.ctr/china3.html

Note:

1921 -Peking Union Medical College [PUMC] - RF

China - D. Rockefeller,

Jr.'s attendance at the PUMC dedication.

Note:

1928 - After 1928, the PUMC and the Rockefeller

Foundation's International

Health Board/Division constituted the chief

vehicles for Rockefeller

philanthropic assistance to medicine in China.

1929 - 1937 - Outbreaks of malaria in Egypt, the

United States, and China

between 1929 and 1937 were attributed to needle

sharing and intravenous

injection of opioids. These reports suggest that

both needle sharing and

intravenous drug use were common by 1937. 1997.

PMID: 9250947

Note:

1930's - Rockefeller Foundation - RF begins its

attack on another public

health hazard-schistosomiasis, a disease caused by

the liver fluke carried

by snails living in canals of irrigated lands-with

the publication of a

study of the disease in Egypt.

Note:

2000 - HCV - The role of parenteral

antischistosomal therapy in the spread

of hepatitis C virus in Egypt. The risk factor for

HCV transmission that

specifically sets Egypt apart from other countries

is a personal history of

parenteral antischistosomal therapy (PAT). PMID:

10752705

WWII

-------

1941 - 1945 - The malaria frontline. Pioneering

malaria research by the

Australian Army in World War II. Documents at the

Australian Academy of

Science and the United States National Academy of

Sciences reveal that

wartime research by the Australian Army at Cairns

had a significant impact

on United States malaria research programs, as

well as providing a

scientific basis for drug control of malaria.

1997. PMID: 9087191

1941 - 1945 - Malaria - Australian army infected

troops and internees in

second world war. 1999. PMID: 10231245

1941 - The for biomedical research after World War

II. After Pearl Harbor

1941 and the Japanese conquest of the Netherlands

East Indies the U.S. were

confronted with both a war in the malaria-ridden

South Pacific and the loss

of the sources of quinine. This situation gave

birth to a ative

Wartime Program with the participation of national

scientific and medical

organizations, universities, hospitals,

industries, and the

Armed Forces. It worked as a flexible system of

coordinated and cooperative

units subsidized by the U.S. Government. In the

course of WWII malaria

casualties dropped beyond expectation due to an

improved usage of quinacrine

(Atebrine) which was based on new knowledge in

pharmacokinetics.

Furthermore, basic knowledge in malariology was

improved, and a

mass-screening resulted in new antimalarial drugs,

such as chloroquine.

1999. PMID: 10432779

1942 - 1943 - Malaria was the major cause of

casualties among allied forces

in the South West Pacific campaigns during 1942

and 1943, despite the

suppressive use of quinine and later atebrin.

Clinical experiments

undertaken at the Land Headquarters Medical

Research Unit of the Australian

Army in Cairns, under the direction of Neil

Hamilton Fairley, demonstrated

that atebrin was able to provide complete

protection against vivax and

falciparum malaria. Fairley presented the

experimental results to army

commanders in a specially convened conference at

Atherton, Queensland, in

June 1944 and persuaded the army that the solution

to the malaria problem

was for men to take 1 tablet (100 mg) of atebrin

each day with unvarying

regularity while in a malarious area and for 4

weeks afterwards.

Subsequently, rigid atebrin discipline was adopted

and the incidence of the

disease amongst Australian soldiers in New Guinea

during 1945 fell to the

lowest levels ever recorded to that time by

non-immune troops operating for

extended periods in highly endemic malarious

areas. The one exception to

this unprecedented achievement was during the

Aitape-Wewak campaign when an

epidemic of falciparum malaria developed despite

the use of suppressive

atebrin. An investigation of this epidemic,

involving chemotherapeutic

experiments of malaria derived from specially

selected patients evacuated to

Cairns, showed that some of the parasites were

resistant to atebrin. 1996.

PMID: 8982785

1943 - 1946 - Australia - Malaria and the Land

Headquarters Medical Research

Unit, 1943-1946. 1994 PMID: 8022356

1943 - 1946 - Australia's contribution to the

chemotherapy of human

parasitic infections. The demands of war ensured

that the Army Malaria Unit

at Cairns carried out meticulous and exceptional

studies to evaluate new

antimalarial compounds. Not only were they able to

prove the effectiveness

of atebrin, Proguanil and chloroquine as

prophylactics, they also obtained

much new information on the pharmacokinetics of

antimalarials and about the

infection itself. Full recognition of these

pioneering studies involving

over 1000 volunteers infected with malaria, which

can never be repeated, has

not been appreciated. 1995. PMID: 8847165

Post WWII

--------------

1945 - NIH - The experiences of the Malaria

Program were used by one of its

chief architects, A. , to transform

the National Institutes of

Health (NIH) into the model medical research

institution whose budget for

extramural programs also allowed for the

nationwide post-war boom of medical

research. 1999. PMID: 10432779

1948 - Specific strain of Anopheles freeborni from

California (F-1) that has

been used extensively in experimental

investigations of malaria for more

than 50 years. 1999. PMID: 10412108

1949 - WHO - Malaria has been one of the main

health problems demanding the

attention of WHO from the time the Organization

was created. This review of

the historical record analyses the different

approaches to the malaria

problem in the past 40 years and shows how WHO

tried to fulfil its

constitutional mandate. 1989. PMID: 2670294

1958 - 1963 - The U.S. Congress established an

intense, time-limited,

worldwide malaria eradication program in 1958 and

assigned operational

responsibility to the U.S. Agency for

International Development (and its

predecessors). When the program was terminated on

schedule in 1963,

approximately $400 million had been consumed and

malaria prevalence had

greatly been reduced. Transmission began to

increase thereafter. The

open-ended WHO global eradication effort began in

1955 ended in 1969 and

consumed approximately $15 million during the

1958-1963 period of progress,

mainly provided by the United States. Intensified

anti-malaria interventions

continued after Congress discontinued direct

support. Although

malariological research was discouraged during the

period of time

limitation, it was embraced as the conceptual

basis for the open-ended

period of intervention that followed. This effort

saved many lives but

expended our ability to intervene against future

epidemics and reduced human

herd immunity. To avoid the " great gamble "

inherent in any ambitious

intervention against this disease, future programs

should be designed to

seek incremental, local antimalaria gains. 1993.

PMID: 8094462

1960 - 1979 - NIH - Korea - A historical review

and prospects of medical

entomology research in Korea. During the first

period (1910-1959), medical

entomology research was initiated by Japanese

workers, and then by U.S. Army

Medical Unit personnels and a few Korean pioneers,

who greatly contributed

to establishing a foundation for medical

entomology in Korea. During the

second period (1960-1979), research activities

were intensively carried out

by the entomology team of the Central Malaria

Eradication Service and staffs

of the Division of Medical Entomology, National

Institute of Health, who

collaborated with WHO-Vector Ecology and Control

Research Unit. 1990. PMID:

2133419

DDT

------

1942 - 1952 - ..to trace important facets of the

early history of DDT

testing from 1942 to 1952 through the archives of

the Rockefeller

Foundation, including the records of the Virus

Laboratory that it operated

in New York City, the Malaria Experiment Station

in Tallahassee, Florida

that it funded, the operations of the Rockefeller

Foundation Health

Commission in newly-liberated North Africa and

southern Italy, and a program

of typhus and malaria control in Mexico.