Topic: Animal-assisted Therapy

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Topic: Animal-assisted Therapy

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Summary

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is the use of animals to attain certain

goals in a professional therapeutic environment. The animals can be

used to promote certain advancements in individuals receiving

therapy. Animal-assisted therapy can often be an important catalyst

for therapist/patient bonding. A survey of research shows that AAT

can be extremely helpful when used in an appropriate context and

setting. However, there is a definite need for more research on this

topic.

Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is a fairly old practice, but it has

just recently drawn a lot of attention and interest. The Delta

Society (as cited by Nebbe, n.d.) defines animal-assisted therapy as

the use of an animal in a goal oriented intervention. AAT is provided

and documented by professionals. Furthermore, it is designed to

promote advancements in social, emotional, physical, and/or cognitive

operation (Nebbe, n.d.). It is also important to note that animal-

assisted therapy should always be an adjunctive intervention and not

in isolation of other services (Fitchett, Granger, Helmer, Kogan, &

Young, 1999). Almost any animal can be used in AAT as long as it is

a pleasant, sociable animal. However, before animal-assisted therapy

can be implemented, the client's feelings and allergies to animals

should be taken into account.

Boris Levinson was the first to draw attention to the role of animals

in therapy when he documented that many of his child clients that

were withdrawn and uncommunicative would respond positively and

interact when his dog, Jingles, was present (Netting, New, & ,

1987). Since that time, AAT has been implemented worldwide and has

been shown to be effective in many therapy programs. Animal-assisted

therapy has been very effective with children and has been

implemented into school and residential programs. However, most of

the reported successes come in the form of case studies and personal

anecdotes (Fawcett & Gullone, 2001) and are lacking empirical

evidence.

AAT is useful in all therapy programs because animals can

serve as a catalyst to conversation (Netting, et al., 1987). For

this reason, Corson et al. (as cited in Netting, et al., 1987) refer

to the animal as a social lubricant. An animal is useful as an

icebreaker (Missel,2001) to begin interactions with the therapist and

the client. Animal-assisted therapy has also demonstrated its

usefulness in stress reduction and alleviation of depression (Castro,

Friend, McMahon, & son, 1997). Research has shown AAT's

association with lowered heart rates and blood pressure (Friedmann as

cited by Farnum & , 2002), reduced anxiety (Barker as cited by

Farnum & , 2002), and greater self-esteem (Walsh as cited by

Farnum & , 2002). The animals can be used to calm the clients

and create opportunities for discussion.

Animal-assisted therapy has been especially effective with

children. 's research (as cited by Fawcett & Gullone, 2001)

shows that children have an innate fascination and curiosity towards

animals. One could see why it would be easier for a child to

empathize and relate to an animal whose actions are simple and

obvious, than with a human who exhibits more complex behaviors

(Nebbe, 1991). Beck and Katcher (as cited in Hanselman, 2001) stated

that children are more relaxed when in the company of an animal.

There is evidence that a situation can be deemed less threatening to

a child if an animal is present (Friedmann, Katcher, Lynch, Messent,

& , 1983). This change in the child's view of the environment

(Friedmann et al, 1983) can make a therapist seem friendlier and

easier to talk to. A bond can be formed with the therapists due to

the mutual relationship with the animal (Nebbe, 1991).

Animal-assisted therapy can be used in specific target

populations of children. It has been proven effective with children

who have emotional disorders, pervasive developmental disorders and

Down's syndrome (Bradshaw, Cormack & Limond, 1997; Farnum & ,

2002; Fitchett,et al., 1999; Gullone, 2003; Hanselman, 2001; Haynie,

et al., n.d.). AAT has been proven successful for children that have

emotional disorders. An emotional disorder is defined as a chronic

condition characterized by emotional responses that differ from norms

(Shank, , Turnbull, & Turnbull, 2004). (as cited in

Nebbe, 1991) found that children with emotion disorders become more

readily involved with animals rather than people or tasks. The AAT

program can help a child that is emotionally disturbed gain non-

aggressive voice tones, appropriate eye contact, and proper

techniques for sharing and playing (Fitchett, et al., 1999) by

practicing with an animal. It is easier to practice with an animal

because they will not argue or reject them. These techniques, learned

with an animal, can then be generalized to other humans.

One specific type of emotional disorder, Conduct Disorder,

which is defined by the DSM-IV (as cited by Gullone, 2003) as a

constant and repetitive pattern of behaviors that violate the basic

rights of others and other age-appropriate societal norms, is

particularly targeted by animal-assisted therapy. It is thought that

by teaching children with risk of conduct disorder (CD) to have

empathy and concern for others, their developmental trajectories may

be modified (Gullone, 2003). An animal-assisted therapy can be

directed at re-focusing the child's aggressive and dominating actions

towards caring and gentle actions in a relationship free of rejection

and full of unconditional positive regard. The child can form a

secure attachment with another living being which will contribute to

their basic sense of trust (Gullone, 2003). These lessons can then

be transferred to human relationships.

Those with pervasive developmental disorders can be

positively influenced by animal-assisted therapy. The American

Psychiatric Association (as cited in Farnum & , 2002) states

that pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs) are a genre of

disorders including autistic disorder, Rett's syndrome, Asperger's,

childhood disintegrative disorder, and PDDs not specified. Common to

all of these disorders is a lack of social interaction and

communication skills (Farnum & , 2002). Traditional therapies

have not been particularly helpful with these disorders. For this

reason, animal-assisted therapy has been gaining momentum in this

field. ATT has been shown as beneficial to these children by using

animals as transitional objects between bonds with the animal to

bonds with people. A study by Farnum and (2002) found that

when in the presence of a therapy dog, children with pervasive

developmental disorders were happier, looked around the room less,

talked less frequently about topics unrelated to a conversation, and

were more likely to agree with requests made by the therapist. This

shows an increase in less one-sided, more meaningful and focused

discussions.

A specific type of pervasive developmental disorder, autism, has been

the sole topic of a few studies in animal-assisted therapy. Autism

is a neurological disorder that interferes with behavioral

development (Haynie, Gardner, , Sams, Sides, , et al.,

n.d.). It can include deficient use of language, inability to focus,

failure to interact, and repetitive actions or behaviors. A study by

Haynie et al. (n.d.) of a school-based therapy program showed that

AAT induced speech, self initiated interactions, and focus of

previously withdrawn children. This shows that AAT can help make

improvements in the three areas that those with autism struggle with

the most. In another study by Redefer & Goodman (as cited by Farnum

& , 2002) animal assisted therapy was found to increase social

behaviors, decrease stereotypical behaviors (i.e. hand-flapping), and

decrease self-absorption. Animal-assisted therapy should be

considered a highly exceptional option for those with autism,

considering that other therapies have not proven very helpful.

There is also some interest in the effect of animal-assisted therapy

on children with Down's syndrome. A study by Bradshaw, Cormack and

Limond (1997) found that children with Down's syndrome were more

responsive to the therapist when a dog was present. Also, the

responses were more likely to be cooperative. Furthermore, the

children were less distracted in sessions when the dog was present.

Overall, the study showed that the presence of a dog, in therapy with

children with Down's syndrome, can encourage positive interactions

and focus the child's attention on the activities at hand.

Animal-animal assisted therapy can be used in schools and in

residential facilities. Animals can have visiting days with guidance

counselors in schools. This will give the counselors a chance to

talk to students who just want to stop in to see the animal

(Chandler, 2001). Another possibility, pointed out by Chandler

(2001), is that students who need to talk to the counselor can use

the animal as an excuse to visit the office. As Nebbe (1991) states,

the animal can also establish a respect for the counselor and a

rapport with the children. The animal makes the office feel like a

safe, inviting environment.

In residential facilities the animals can be used as a peaceful

escape as well as a learning tool. Green Chimney's residential

treatment center is a farm for children that are experiencing

emotional and academic difficulties (Mallon, 1994). Resident

children are allowed to visit, work at, and take classes on the

farm. In a study, by Mallon (1994), he found that children visited

the farm whenever they needed to feel better. Residents also

reported talking to the animals when they needed to confide in

someone. They trusted the animals because they knew the animals

would not judge them or repeat what they said (Mallon, 2004). Just

talking about your problems, even if you are talking to an animal,

can be therapeutic. Mallon (2004) also describes how talking to the

animal can serve as a catalytic agent in bringing the child together

with a therapist. They learn to trust the animals which can help

them transfer trust to humans. Overall, the farm is a safe place for

these children to turn when they need to brighten their day.

Animal-assisted therapy has many benefits for mankind.

The right kind of human-animal bond can create miracles. It can help

children learn to trust, love, and nurture. Animals can teach

responsibility and empathy. They can help a child learn something it

seemed impossible to teach them through human interaction. However,

there is not enough empirical evidence in this topic. Solid,

experimental studies need to be done to give this therapy the

attention and backing it deserves. As more research is done, the

benefits will become more apparent and current techniques more

refined (Missel, 2001). With substantial evidence, will come

financial support and a wider utilization of animal-assisted

therapy.

Related Websites

http://www.animaltherapy.net

Welcome to the world of animal-assisted therapy and animal-assisted

activities.

http://www.uaata.com

Utah Animal-assisted Therapy Association

http://www.kindplanet.org

Kind Planet: A community celebrating life!

References

Bradshaw, J., Cormack, M., & Limond, J. (1997). Behavior of children

with learning disabilities interacting with a therapy dog.

Anthrozoos, 10(2-3), 84-89.

Castro, D., Friend, H., McMahon, M., & son, D. (1997).

Effectiveness of short-term dolphin-assisted therapy for children

with severe disabilities. Anthrozoos, 10(2-3), 90-100.

Chandler, C. (2001). Animal-assisted therapy in counseling and school

setting. Retrieved on November 1, 2004, from

http://www.ericfacility.net/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed459404.html.

Farnum, J. & , F. (2002). Animal-assisted therapy for children

with pervasive developmental disorders. Western Journal of Nursing

Research, 24(6), 657-670.

Fitchett, J., Granger, B., Helmer, K., Kogan, L., & Young, K. (1999).

The human-animal team approach for children with emotional disorders:

Two case studies. Child & Youth Care Forum, 28(2), 105-121.

Fawcett, N. & Cullone, E. (2001). Cute and cuddly and a whole lot

more? A call for empirical investigation into therapeutic benefits of

human-animal interaction for children. Behaviour Change, 18(2), 124-

133

Friedmann, E., Katcher, A., Lynch, J., Messent, P., & , S.

(1983). Social interaction and blood pressure: Influence of animal

companions. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 171(8), 461-465.

Gullone, E. (2003). The proposed benefits of incorporating non-human

animals into preventative<> efforts for Conduct Disorder.

Anthrozoos, 16(2), 160-174

Hanselman, J. (2001). Coping skills intervention with adolescents in

anger management using animals in therapy. Journal of

Adolescent Group Therapy, 11(4), 159-195.

Haynie, K., Gardner, A., , C., Sams, M., Sides, J., , H., et

al. (n.d.). Differential behavioral responses in autistic children:

Animal-assisted therapy versus conventional therapy. Retrieved

November 8, 2004, from http://www.pan-inc.org/html/fall9903.html.

Mallon, G. (1994). Cow as co-therapist: Utilization of farm animals

as therapeutic aides with children in residential treatment. Child &

Adolescent Social Work Journal, 11(6), 455-474.

Missel, M. (2001). The use of choice theory in animal assisted

therapy for children and young adults. International Journal of

Reality Therapy, 20(2), 40-41.

Nebbe, L. (n.d.). Animal-assisted activities/therapy as an animal and

human welfare project. Retrieved November 1, 2004, from Psychologists

For The Ethical Treatment Of Animals Web site:

http://www.psyeta.org/hia/vol8/nebbe.html.

Nebbe, L. (1991). The human-animal bond and the elementary school

counselor. School Counselor, 38(5), 362-371.

Netting, E., New, J., & , C. (1987). The human-animal bond:

Implications for practice. Social Work, 32(1), 60-64.

Shank, M., , S., Turnbull, A., & Turnbull, T. (2004).

Exceptional Lives: Special education in today's schools (4th ed.).

New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall.