Several scientific papers on stachybotrys that taken together, explain a lot.

[Guest guest]

These papers are among the many pieces of research released since

ACOEM that have addressed important issues

Hundreds of new papers over the last few years may not be as many as

we would hope for

given the enormous threats to health WDB's represent, but the new

knowledge is very important..:

For example..

1.) one reason why stachybotrys spores often don't show up on spore

trap air testing

2.) one of many reasons why people still can get sick in moldy

buildings with stachybotrys particles from previous growth

3.) even many years earlier, even when they allegedly test " clean " or

simply dont show any stachybotrys spores

4.) more on the above

5.) one of many reasons why spores should not be used to measure

stachybotrys toxicity

6.) One of many, many reasons why even allegedly " nontoxic " stachy

strains are still dangerous

(the numbers are footnotes to the references below)

You can visit the papers by putting the PMID number into a search URL,

like this URL does for the first one:

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1726724

1.) Fungal Genet Biol. 2007 Jul;44(7):641-7. Epub 2006 Dec 24.

Biomechanics of conidial dispersal in the toxic mold Stachybotrys chartarum.

Tucker K, Stolze JL, Kennedy AH, Money NP.

Department of Botany, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.

Conidial dispersal in Stachybotrys chartarum in response to

low-velocity airflow was studied using a microflow apparatus. The

maximum rate of spore release occurred during the first 5 min of

airflow, followed by a dramatic reduction in dispersal that left more

than 99% of the conidia attached to their conidiophores.

Micromanipulation of undisturbed colonies showed that micronewton

(microN) forces were needed to dislodge spore clusters from their

supporting conidiophores. Calculations show that airspeeds that

normally prevail in the indoor environment disturb colonies with

forces that are 1000-fold lower, in the nanonewton (nN) range.

Low-velocity airflow does not, therefore, cause sufficient disturbance

to disperse a large proportion of the conidia of S. chartarum.

PMID: 17267247 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

PMCID: PMC1950243

(but the conidia are not the whole story, for example.. the most

respirabile toxic particles are far smaller..)

2.) Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005 Jan;71(1):114-22.

Detection of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum macrocyclic

trichothecene mycotoxins on particulates smaller than conidia.

Brasel TL, DR, SC, Straus DC.

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, TTUHSC, 3601 4th St.,

Lubbock, TX 79430, USA.

Highly respirable particles (diameter, <1 microm) constitute the

majority of particulate matter found in indoor air. It is hypothesized

that these particles serve as carriers for toxic compounds,

specifically the compounds produced by molds in water-damaged

buildings. The presence of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum

trichothecene mycotoxins on particles smaller than conidia (e.g.,

fungal fragments) was therefore investigated. Cellulose ceiling tiles

with confluent Stachybotrys growth were placed in gas-drying

containers through which filtered air was passed. Exiting particulates

were collected by using a series of polycarbonate membrane filters

with decreasing pore sizes. Scanning electron microscopy was employed

to determine the presence of conidia on the filters. A competitive

enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) specific for macrocyclic

trichothecenes was used to analyze filter extracts. Cross-reactivity

to various mycotoxins was examined to confirm the specificity.

Statistically significant (P < 0.05) ELISA binding was observed

primarily for macrocyclic trichothecenes at concentrations of 50 and 5

ng/ml and 500 pg/ml (58.4 to 83.5% inhibition). Of the remaining

toxins tested, only verrucarol and diacetylverrucarol (nonmacrocyclic

trichothecenes) demonstrated significant binding (18.2 and 51.7%

inhibition, respectively) and then only at high concentrations. The

results showed that extracts from conidium-free filters demonstrated

statistically significant (P < 0.05) antibody binding that increased

with sampling time (38.4 to 71.9% inhibition, representing a range of

0.5 to 4.0 ng/ml). High-performance liquid chromatography analysis

suggested the presence of satratoxin H in conidium-free filter

extracts. These data show that S. chartarum trichothecene mycotoxins

can become airborne in association with intact conidia or smaller

particles. These findings may have important implications for indoor

air quality assessment.

PMID: 15640178 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

PMCID: PMC544211

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15640178

3.) J Occup Environ Hyg. 2004 Aug;1(8):500-4.

Culturability and toxicity of sick building syndrome-related fungi

over time.

SC, Carriker CG, Brasel TL, Karunasena E, DR, Wu C,

Andriychuk LA, Fogle MR, JM, Straus DC.

Center for Indoor Air Research, Department of Microbiology and

Immunology, Health Sciences Center Texas Tech University, 3601 4th

St., Lubbock, Texas 79430, USA. stephenwilson@...

Two experiments were conducted regarding the culturability and

toxicity of fungi located on building materials over time and the

efficacy of seven laboratory techniques in recovering culturable fungi

from sample swabs. In the first experiment, eight sections of drywall

were inoculated with Stachybotrys chartarum and stored at 25 +/- 5

degrees Celsius and 20-60% relative humidity (RH) for up to two years.

Another eight sections of ceiling tile were stored at 100% RH for 1

year. Six sections of ceiling tile and 15 swabs were also inoculated

with Penicillium chrysogenum and S. chartarum respectively and stored

under the same conditions for 8 months and 3.3 years. All materials

were tested for culturability at the end of the storage period. S.

chartarum-inoculated samples were also tested for toxicity. In the

second experiment (replicated twice), S. chartarum and Chaetomium

globosum were inoculated onto 84 swabs each. Storage was up to 266

days at 25 +/- 5 degrees Celsius and 20-60% RH. Seven techniques were

compared regarding the recovery of culturable fungi from the swabs

over different time points. Results for Experiment 1 showed that all

samples were culturable after the storage period and that the S.

chartarum-inoculated drywall samples were toxic. In Experiment 2, all

techniques showed high rates of recovery. These data show that despite

being without a water source, these organisms can be culturable and

toxic after long periods of time under conditions similar to

human-occupied dwellings and that a number of preparation techniques

are suitable for the recovery of these fungi from inoculated swabs.

PMID: 15238302 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15238302

4.) Appl Environ Microbiol. 2005 Nov;71(11):7376-88.

Detection of airborne Stachybotrys chartarum macrocyclic

trichothecene mycotoxins in the indoor environment.

Brasel TL, JM, Carriker CG, SC, Straus DC.

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, TTUHSC, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA.

The existence of airborne mycotoxins in mold-contaminated

buildings has long been hypothesized to be a potential occupant health

risk. However, little work has been done to demonstrate the presence

of these compounds in such environments. The presence of airborne

macrocyclic trichothecene mycotoxins in indoor environments with known

Stachybotrys chartarum contamination was therefore investigated. In

seven buildings, air was collected using a high-volume liquid

impaction bioaerosol sampler (SpinCon PAS 450-10) under static or

disturbed conditions. An additional building was sampled using an

Andersen GPS-1 PUF sampler modified to separate and collect

particulates smaller than conidia. Four control buildings (i.e., no

detectable S. chartarum growth or history of water damage) and outdoor

air were also tested. Samples were analyzed using a macrocyclic

trichothecene-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

ELISA specificity was tested using phosphate-buffered saline extracts

of the fungal genera Aspergillus, Chaetomium, Cladosporium, Fusarium,

Memnoniella, Penicillium, Rhizopus, and Trichoderma, five Stachybotrys

strains, and the indoor air allergens Can f 1, Der p 1, and Fel d 1.

For test buildings, the results showed that detectable toxin

concentrations increased with the sampling time and short periods of

air disturbance. Trichothecene values ranged from <10 to >1,300 pg/m3

of sampled air. The control environments demonstrated statistically

significantly (P < 0.001) lower levels of airborne trichothecenes.

ELISA specificity experiments demonstrated a high specificity for the

trichothecene-producing strain of S. chartarum. Our data indicate that

airborne macrocyclic trichothecenes can exist in

Stachybotrys-contaminated buildings, and this should be taken into

consideration in future indoor air quality investigations.

PMID: 16269780 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

PMCID: PMC1287651

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16269780

5.) Mycopathologia. 2004 Jul;158(1):87-97.

Protein translation inhibition by Stachybotrys chartarum conidia

with and without the mycotoxin containing polysaccharide matrix.

Karunasena E, Cooley JD, Straus D, Straus DC.

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Texas Tech University

Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA.

Recent studies have correlated the presence of Stachybotrys

chartarum in structures with SBS. S. chartarum produces mycotoxins

that are thought to produce some of the symptoms reported in

sick-building syndrome (SBS). The conidia (spores) produced by

Stachybotrys species are not commonly found in the air of buildings

that have been found to contain significant interior growth of this

organism. This could be due in part to the large size of the

Stachybotrys spores, or the organism growing in hidden areas such as

wall cavities. However, individuals in buildings with significant

Stachybotrys growth frequently display symptoms that may be attributed

to exposure to the organism's mycotoxins. In addition, Stachybotrys

colonies produce a " slime " or polysaccharide (carbohydrate) matrix

that coats the hyphae and the spores. The intent of this project was

to determine whether the carbohydrate matrix and the mycotoxins

embedded in it could be removed from the spores by repeated washings

with either aqueous or organic solvents. The results demonstrated that

the process of spore washing removed compounds that were toxic in a

protein translation assay as compared to spores that were washed with

an organic solution, however a correlation between carbohydrate

removal during the washing process and the removal of mycotoxins from

the spore surface was not observed. These data demonstrated that

mycotoxins are not likely to be found exclusively in the carbohydrate

matrix of the spores. Therefore, mycotoxin removal from the spore

surface can occur without significant loss of polysaccharide. We also

showed that toxic substances may be removed from the spore surface

with an aqueous solution. These results suggest that satratoxins are

soluble in aqueous solutions without being bound to water-soluble

moieties, such as the carbohydrate slime matrix.

PMID: 15487326 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15487326

6.) Mycopathologia. 2007 Oct;164(4):171-81. Epub 2007 Jul 3.

The role of fungal proteinases in pathophysiology of Stachybotrys chartarum.

Yike I, Rand T, Dearborn DG.

Ann Swetland Center for Environmental Health, Case Western

Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA. ixy@...

The adverse health effects of Stachybotrys chartarum have often

been linked to exposure to the trichothecene mycotoxins. Recent

studies have shown that in addition to mycotoxins this fungus is

capable of producing and secreting in vivo proteins such as hemolysins

and proteinases. Spore extracts obtained from a high trichothecene

producing isolate JS 58-17 exhibited a significantly lower proteolytic

activity compared to the low trichothecene producer, JS 58-06. Growing

isolates on rice or potato dextrose agar results in higher proteolytic

activity of the spores compared to those grown on drywall. Proteinases

in the spore extracts can hydrolyze gelatin and collagen I and IV.

Analysis of zymograms shows the presence of several proteins with

proteolytic activity in the spores of S. chartarum. Human tracheal

epithelial cells exposed to spore extracts produced significantly

higher levels of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-alpha than control cells. This

stimulation of cytokine production was completely abolished by

Pefabloc, a serine protease inhibitor. Neutrophil numbers and

proinflammatory cytokine (IL1-beta and TNF-alpha) concentrations were

highly elevated in the lungs of 7 day old rat pups exposed

intratracheally to 4 x 10(4) spores/gm body weight compared to

control. No significant differences in those inflammatory indices in

vivo were noted between the treatments with the high trichothecene

producer, isolate JS 58-17 and JS 58-06, which does not produce

macrocyclic trichothecenes. Immunohistochemistry revealed reduced

collagen IV labeling in spore-induced lung granulomas in rat pups

exposed to both isolates. These results suggest that proteinases from

S. chartarum spores significantly contribute to lung inflammation and

injury.

PMID: 17610048 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17610048