Guest guest Posted April 18, 2008 Report Share Posted April 18, 2008 Relevant to my recent post: Females and Menstrual Irregularities: http://www.thinkmuscle.com/articles/volk/menstrual-cycle.htm Planet Estrogen Part II: Apples and Pears: http://www.thinkmuscle.com/articles/volk/planet-estrogen-02.htm Planet Estrogen Part III: The Menstrual Cycle and Athletic Performance, by Elzi Volk: http://www.thinkmuscle.com/articles/volk/planet-estrogen-03.htm Sports performance and the menstrual cycle, by Horwill: http://www.serpentine.org.uk/advice/coach/fh66.php The Menstrual Cycle and your performance: http://www.peakrun.com/articles/74_1.htm Menstrual Status and Performance: http://www.acsm.org/pdf/CertNews.pdf Menstrual Cycle: http://www.brianmac.demon.co.uk/menstrual.htm WOMEN AND STRENGTH TRAINING: Tucker Center for Research on Girls & Women in Sport: http://cehd.umn.edu/tuckercenter/default.html The effect of menstruation on psychological and physiological correlates of endurance performance: http://www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/2001/acsms/papers/CAME.pdf ========================= Female Athletics: Are ACL Tears Preventable in the Female Athlete? Don , MD Medscape Orthopaedics & Sports Medicine 6(2), 2002 Injury to the anterior cruciate ligament has become an epidemic in females playing soccer and basketball. There have been numerous theories suggested, such as small ligaments, narrow intercondylar notches, hormonal fluctuations, valgus alignment, and muscle imbalance. We have to live with the fact that perhaps females have anatomical differences, but the one factor that can be easily modified is the muscle imbalance. Hewett[1] originally brought to our attention that the rate of ACL injury can be reduced by a preseason jump-training program. This program taught the female athletes how to land from a jump and strengthened the quadriceps and hamstring muscle groups by plyometric training. The following article has reproduced the Hewett study findings and confirmed that a conditioning program for soccer will reduce the rate of ACL injury. The findings should be of interest to anyone who is involved with young women in sports. References 1. Hewett TE, Lindenfeld TN, Riccobene JV, Noyes FR. The effect of neuromuscular training on the incidence of knee injury in female athletes: a prospective study. Am J Sports Med. 1999;27:699-706. ==================== Mel wrote: Here is another report on the puzzle as to why women experience a higher incidence of anterior cruciate ligament injuries than their male equivalents. Would anyone care to comment on this story? Interestingly, my PhD research (Siff M C 'Ballistic Analysis of the Human Knee', 1986) found that the knees of women athletes exhibit a damping ratio of about 16% greater than that of the male knee, irrespective of bodymass adjustments, which implies that the female knee seems to be intrinsically BETTER equipped to absorb impact energy than the male knee - yet male knees display fewer injuries of the same type. This finding would appear to suggest that landing or locomotion technique may be more to blame than any assumed inferior intrinsic shock absorbing capabilities of the female knee. I found that the damping ratio of young teenage girls display a lower damping ratio than adult women , so it would be interesting to see if ACL damage tends to be higher among young teenagers than among adult women. Does anyone have some references in this regard? ============================= EAST GERMANY: (Charlie Francis ) - Re Hormonal training: In the former East Germany, the medical staff tried to consider this in the establishment of an annual plan. They asked each woman when, in her cycle, did she feel the best? (there was no set answer). Based on her answer, they worked backwards from the most important competition date and adjusted the birth control pills to allow her to be at her preferred stage when it counted. ====================== BULGARIA: Professor Angel Spassov - The Influence of Weightlifting on the Woman's Body http://www.coachsos.com/coach.asp?coach_id=5 & sport_id= & view=arti#arti ========================= RUSSIA: http://www.serpentine.org.uk/advice/coach/fh66.php Suslov, the former national coach for distance running in the former USSR, wrote in Track Technique Annual 1981, " Female sports competitors are encouraged to train normally through all phases of their menstrual cycle. The exception being with weight-training, where heavy weights were substituted for lighter weights with many repetitions. Our experience is that in the 4 days before and after a period, there is a higher incidence of injury when using heavy weights. " ========================= RESEARCH FINDINGS: NSCA Journal August-September 1982 - Trends in Soviet Strength and Conditioning From Macro- to Meso- to Micro-Cycles. Yessis: " For women athletes, especially those who use high intensity and high volume loads, the weekly and monthly cycles are adjusted according to their menstrual periods. Throughout the days of menstruation, the volume of exercises decreases, and intensity drops to 50%-60% of maximum. Exercises for jump ability and strength are excluded, especially static type activities….Women athletes participate in competition during the menstrual period to prepare themselves for such eventuality during a major meet. " OD Dzhovnovataya Pulse, Arterial Blood Pressure and Breathing in the Woman Athlete during various phases of the Menstrual Cycle. Theory & Practice of Physical Culture, 9:29-32, 1962. Provided by Dr Yessis: In studies it has been shown that women have smaller height, lower bodymass and weaker development of certain organs and systems. However, changes during the menstrual period have usually been omitted in these studies. Where included, the results have been contradictory. According to some studies in the speed aspects of sports, high results are possible in many sportswomen in various phases of the cycle. In endurance exercises, the results deteriorate during the menstrual period. In the total health of women in menstruation without " pressage " sports, undertakings do not effect menstrual functions. However, most women show great individuality. The purpose of this study was to determine the advisability of using heavy loads during the period of menstruation. Subjects (33) were student-teachers of physical education, 19-22 years of ago, unmarried, healthy, and had a Category I (elite) sports rating in their respective sports. Determinations were carried out for not less then three cycles. Functional tests were given at rest, during execution of dynamic work and during participation in gymnastics, track and field, volleyball and basketball. It was found that pulse and arterial pressure in these women is normal and there is no change during the menstrual period. During physical activity the pulse increases and the return to normal is longer (20-60 seconds). In physical activity the maximum arterial pressure is greater, as is the pulse; in some women it is lowered. During non-participation, the minimum arterial pressure is lowered; during physical activity the minimum goes up by 1-12 mm Hg, depending upon the sport. In some sports it goes up to 25 mm, when there are great loads. The minimum arterial pressure went up in 65% of the gymnasts, in 70% of the basketballers and in all of the volleyball and track and field athletes. The rise in maximal and minimal blood pressure is considered an unfavorable showing. It was concluded that the reactions of the circulatory system under great sports loading in the first 3 days of menstruation are unfavorable. Great loads during these days are hard on the body and are not generally recommended. Relevant extract from BASES (British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences) December (2002) - Dr Olga Rutherford, Senior Lecturer in Physiology, Division of Physiology, Kings College London): " ....Thus, there is still considerable controversy concerning the effects of the female sex hormones on muscle strength. In considering the evidence, at least two very important issues need to be borne in mind. Firstly; conventionally the strength tests used to study these effects have involved simple static or isokinetic contractions of single muscle groups. When more complex strength tasks have been studied, similar to those that would occur in sport, no evidence for an effect of oestrogen has been found. In addition, the sport and exercise scientist must remember that these tests are dependent on many factors other than maximal strength, such as motivation and skill. Secondly, little of the research has been carried out in the female athletic population. It is unlikely that phases of the menstrual cycle will have any meaningful effect on performance as the effects are transitory and relatively small. One area that does require more research is the effects of the OCP (oral contraceptive pill) in power athletes, as to date the majority of the work has focused on endurance activities. " Sports Med. 2003;33(11):833-51. - Effects of the menstrual cycle on exercise performance. Janse de Jonge XA: This article reviews the potential effects of the female steroid hormone fluctuations during the menstrual cycle on exercise performance. The measurement of estrogen and progesterone concentration to verify menstrual cycle phase is a major consideration in this review. However, even when hormone concentrations are measured, the combination of differences in timing of testing, the high inter- and intra-individual variability in estrogen and progesterone concentration, the pulsatile nature of their secretion and their interaction, may easily obscure possible effects of the menstrual cycle on exercise performance. When focusing on studies using hormone verification and electrical stimulation to ensure maximal neural activation, the current literature suggests that fluctuations in female reproductive hormones throughout the menstrual cycle do not affect muscle contractile characteristics. Most research also reports no changes over the menstrual cycle for the many determinants of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max), such as lactate response to exercise, bodyweight, plasma volume, hemoglobin concentration, heart rate and ventilation. Therefore, it is not surprising that the current literature indicates that VO2max is not affected by the menstrual cycle. These findings suggest that regularly menstruating female athletes, competing in strength- specific sports and intense anaerobic/aerobic sports, do not need to adjust for menstrual cycle phase to maximize performance. For prolonged exercise performance, however, the menstrual cycle may have an effect. Even though most research suggests that oxygen consumption, heart rate and rating of perceived exertion responses to sub-maximal steady- state exercise are not affected by the menstrual cycle, several studies report a higher cardiovascular strain during moderate exercise in the mid-luteal phase. Nevertheless, time to exhaustion at sub-maximal exercise intensities shows no change over the menstrual cycle. The significance of this finding should be questioned due to the low reproducibility of the time to exhaustion test. During prolonged exercise in hot conditions, a decrease in exercise time to exhaustion is shown during the mid-luteal phase, when body temperature is elevated. Thus, the mid-luteal phase has a potential negative effect on prolonged exercise performance through elevated body temperature and potentially increased cardiovascular strain. Practical implications for female endurance athletes may be the adjustment of competition schedules to their menstrual cycle, especially in hot, humid conditions. The small scope of the current research and its methodological limitations warrant further investigation of the effect of the menstrual cycle on prolonged exercise performance. Curr Womens Health Rep. 2001 Dec;1(3):232-40. Relationship between athletic performance and menstrual cycle. Lebrun CM, Rumball JS: The female sex steroid hormones have multiple actions on body systems other than the reproductive axis. Female athletes, coaches, medical professionals, and researchers have long been concerned about the potential impact of menstrual cycle fluctuations in these hormones on components of athletic performance. Estrogen is known to affect the cardiovascular system, bone, and the brain; progesterone primarily influences thermoregulation and ventilation. Substrate metabolism is likely altered by both hormones. Net physiological effects can be either opposing or synergistic and are determined by the relative proportions of each. Nevertheless, investigations to date have not consistently demonstrated significant differences in aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, aerobic endurance, or muscle strength in any specific menstrual cycle phase. The course of some chronic diseases may vary slightly during the menstrual cycle, but the mechanism is currently unknown. Recent research in underlying hormonal causes for anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries also is not convincing. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1995 Mar;27 - Effects of menstrual cycle phase on athletic performance. Lebrun CM, McKenzie DC, Prior JC, Taunton JE: 16 eumenorrheic women were tested during the early follicular (F) and midluteal (L) phases of the menstrual cycle. Aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, isokinetic strength, and high intensity endurance. No significant differences were observed between F and L tests in weight, percent body fat, sum of skinfolds, hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, maximum heart rate, maximum minute ventilation, maximum respiratory exchange ratio, anaerobic performance, endurance time to fatigue, or isokinetic strength of knee flexion and extension. " These results suggest that the cyclic increases in endogenous female steroid hormones of an ovulatory menstrual cycle may have a slight, deleterious influence on aerobic capacity, the cycle phase did not impact significantly on the majority of the other performance tests and cardiorespiratory variables measured in this study. " B.J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1991 Mar;31 - Relationships among strength, endurance, weight and body fat during three phases of the menstrual cycle. DiBrezzo R, Fort IL, Brown: 21 subjects, ages 18-36, tested for strength and endurance of the knee flexors and extensors on a Cybex II isokinetic dynamometer. Tested during three phases of the menstrual cycle: mensus (within 24 hours of onset); ovulation (13-14 days from onset); and luteal (10 days from ovulation) Results indicated high correlations among most strength measures at the three test speeds for each phase during the cycle and between the cycle phases the different phases of the menstrual cycle had little or no effect upon the relationships among body weight, percent body fat, knee extension and flexion strength or endurance. J Appl Physiol 1981 Dec;51(6):1493-9 - Effects of menstrual cycle on blood lactate, O2 delivery, and performance during exercise. Jurkowski JE, NL, Toews CJ, Sutton JR: Nine healthy subjects, 20--24 yr of age, investigated in midfollicular and midluteal phases of the menstrual cycle at 33, 66, and 90% of maximum power output Occurrence of ovulation was confirmed in all subjects by measurement of progesterone, which increased from 0.6 +/- 0.1 (mean +/- SE) in the follicular to 8.9 +/- 2.2 ng/ml in the luteal phase. Time for which exhaustive exercise could be maintained increased from 1.57 +/- 0.32 in the follicular to 2.97 +/- 0.63 min in the luteal phase (P less than 0.02). Blood lactate was higher in the follicular phase after heavy exercise (6.62 +/- 0.8 vs. 4.92 +/- 0.5 mmol/l) (P less than 0.05) and at exhaustion (8.12 +/- 0.9 vs. 6.76 +/- 0.6 mmol/L) (P less than 0.01). While aerobic performance and the cardiorespiratory adaptations to exercise are not influenced by the phase of the menstrual cycle, performance of high- intensity exercise is improved, and lactate production appears to be decreased in the luteal phase when estradiol and progesterone levels are elevated. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000 Feb;32 - Influence of the menstrual cycle phase and menstrual symptoms on maximal anaerobic performance. Giacomoni M, Bernard T, Gavarry O, Altare S, Falgairette G: Seven eumenorrheic women (NOC) and 10 women using monophasic oral contraceptives performed three anaerobic tests (force-velocity, multi- jump, and squatting jump tests) during menstruation (M: between days 1 and 4), the midfollicular phase (F: between days 7 and 9), and the midluteal phase (L: between days 19 and 21) of the ovarian cycle. Follicular and luteal phases were confirmed by serum progesterone levels. No significant differences were observed among M, F, and L in Trec(, Trec(a) maximal cycling power (Pmax©), maximal jumping power (Pmax(j)), or maximal height of jump (h(j)) in either NOC or OC. No significant differences were observed among the three stages of the menstrual cycle in Pmax©, Pmax(j), or h(j) in NMS. the presence or absence of premenstrual or menstrual syndrome symptoms may have an effect, possibly through an action on the stretch- shortening cycle of tendons and ligaments. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 16 (8), 545 550. Frequency variations of strength training sessions triggered by the phases of the menstrual cycle. Reis, E, Frick, U, Schmidtbleicher, D. (1995): AB: The aim of the study was to compare the effects of two different models of altering the frequency of strength training sessions of females. The " regular training " (RT) consisted of one training unit every third day over the whole menstrual cycle. The " menstrual cycle triggered training " (MCTT) was characterized by workouts every second day in the follicular and about once per week during the luteal phase. In order to increase maximal strength (MS) the participants performed 3 sets with 12 reps each. Endogenous processes were controlled by measurements of body temperature, control of the luteinizing hormone peak, and by analysing serum hormone (estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and cortisol) and sexual hormone binding globulin (SHBG) levels. MS and muscle cross sectional area (MCA) of the quadriceps femoris were investigated. The result of the MCTT showed a clear increase in the MS of 32.6 percent compared to 13.1 percent by the RT. Significant MCTT induced MS increase was observed during the second menstrual cycle. The ratio of MS/MCA increased by 10.5 percent (RT) and 27.6 percent (MCTT). Despite a wide interindividual variability, all subjects showed higher strength adaptations by MCTT. Additionally, we found significant correlations between different force parameters and the accumulation of estradiol. It was concluded that the MCTT seems to be more efficient compared to RT. Clin J Sport Med. 2003 Jul;13(4):238-41. Muscle strength and endurance do not significantly vary across 3 phases of the menstrual cycle in moderately active premenopausal women. Friden C, Hirschberg AL, Saartok T: OBJECTIVE: To investigate muscle strength and muscle endurance in women during 3 well-determined phases of the menstrual cycle: early follicular phase, ovulation phase, and midluteal phase. DESIGN: Prospective, within-woman analysis was performed of muscle strength and muscle endurance by repeated measures analysis of variance in 3 hormonally verified phases of 2 consecutive menstrual cycles. PARTICIPANTS: Fifteen female subjects with moderate physical activity level and regular menstrual cycles volunteered to participate in the study. Analyses are based on 10 subjects who completed 2 consecutive menstrual cycles with hormonally verified phases. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Handgrip strength, 1-leg hop test, isokinetic muscle strength, and muscle endurance were measured in 2 consecutive menstrual cycles in the early follicular phase, in the ovulation phase, and in the midluteal phase. Isokinetic muscle strength and endurance were tested with knee extension exercise on a standard instrument. Menstrual cycle phases were determined by analysis of sex hormone levels in serum, and ovulation was detected by luteinizing hormone surge in urine. RESULTS: No significant variation in muscle strength or muscle endurance could be detected during different well-determined phases of the menstrual cycle. CONCLUSIONS: This study detected no significant variation in muscle strength and muscle endurance during the menstrual cycle. In contrast to other studies showing variations in strength and endurance during the menstrual cycle, the present study was hormonally validated and was repeated in 2 consecutive menstrual cycles. However, it is unknown whether these data in moderately active university students would be relevant to the highly trained woman athlete. RESEARCH ARTICLES (Provided by Bacon - 2002): Anaerobic Capacity Performance Measurements. LeBrun, C.M., McKenzie, D.C., Prior, J.C. and Taunton, J.E. (1995). Effects of menstrual cycle phase on athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27(3): 437-444. Jurkowski, J.E.H., , N.L., Toews, C.J. and Sutton, J.R. (1981) Effects of menstrual cycle on blood lactate, O2 delivery and performance during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology 51(6): 1493-1499. Jurkowski, J.E., , N.L., Sutton, J.R., and Toews, C.J. (1977) Exercise performance and blood lactate levels in relation to the menstrual cycle. Abstract presented to ACSM conference. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 9: 70, No.16. Lamont, L.S. (1986) Lack of influence of the menstrual cycle on blood lactate. Physician and Sportsmedicine 14(11 ). 159-163. Aerobic Performance - O2 Delivery: Allsen, P.E., Parsons, P., and Bryce, G.R (1977) Effect of the menstrual cycle on maximal oxygen uptake. Physician and Sportsmedicine 5: 53-55. DeSouza, MJ., Maguire, M.S., Rubin, K.R. and Maresh, C.M. (1990) Effects of menstrual phase and aminorrhea on exercise performance in runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 22(5): 575- 580. LeBrun, C.M., McKenzie, D.C., Prior, J.C. and Taunton, J.E. (1995) Effects of menstrual cycle phase on athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27(3): 437-444. Jurkowski, J.E.H., , N.L., Toews, C.J. and Sutton, J.R. (1981) Effects of menstrual cycle on blood lactate, O2 delivery and performance during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology. Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology 51(6): 1493- 1499. Kim, I., Yetley, E.A. and Calvo, M.S. (1993) Variations in iron- status measures during the menstrual cycle. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 58: 705-709. Nicklas, B.J., Hackney, A.C., and Sharp, R.L. (1988) The menstrual cycle and exercise: performance, muscle glycogen, and substrate responses. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10(4).264-269. Vellar, O.D. (1974) Changes in haemoglobin concentration and hematocrit during the menstrual cycle. Acta Obstetrica et Gynecologica Scandinavica 53: 243-246. Aerobic Performance - Fuel, Body Weight and Endurance Performance: LeBrun, C.M., McKenzie, D.C., Prior, J.C. and Taunton, J.E. (1995). Effects of menstrual cycle phase on athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27(3): 437-444. Bonen, A., Haynes, F.J., -, W., Sopper, M.M., Pierce, G.N., Low, M.P., and Graham, T.E. (1983) Effects of menstrual cycle on metabolic responses to exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology: Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology 55(5): 1506- 1513. Dibrezzo, R., Fort, I.L. and Brown, B. (1991) Relationships among strength, endurance, weight and body fat during three phases of the menstrual cycle. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 31 (1 ): 89-94 Gamberle, F., Strindberg, L., and Walberg, I. (1975) Female work capacity during the menstrual cycle: physiological and psychological reactions. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Environmental Health I: 120-127. Higgs, S.L, and Roberson, L.A. (1981) Cyclic variations in perceived exertion and physical work capacity in females. Canadian Journal of applied Sport Science 6: 191-196. Nicklas, B.J., Hackney, A.C., and Sharp, R.L. (1988) The menstrual cycle and exercise: performance, muscle glycogen, and substrate responses. International Journal of Sports Medicine 10( 4). 264- 269. son, L.A., Kolka, M.A., and Wilkerson, J.E. (1982). Metabolic and thermoregulatory responses to exercise during the human menstrual cycle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 14(4). 270-275. Aerobic Performance - Ventilatory Considerations: Dombovy, M.L., Bonekat, H.W., , T.J. and Statts, B.A. (1987) Exercise performance and ventilatory response in the menstrual cycle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 19(2): 11 1- 11 7. Fox, E.L., , F.L. and Bartels, R.L. (1977) Metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses to exercise during the menstrual cycle in trained and untrained subjects. Abstract presented to ACSM conference. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 9: 70, No. 15. Schoene, R.B., on, T., Pierson, D.J. and , A.P. (1981) Respiratory drives and exercise in menstrual cycles of athletic and non-athletic women. Journal of Applied Physiology. Respiratory, Environmental and Exercise Physiology 50: 1300-1305. Aerobic Performance - Temperature Regulation, Haemodynamics and Thirst Considerations: Fortney, SM., Beckett, W.S., Carpenter, A.J., , J., Drew, H., LaFrance, N.D., Rock, J.A., Tankersley, C.G., and Vroman, N.B. (1988) Changes in plasma volume during bed rest effects of menstrual cycle and estrogen administration. Journal of Applied Physiology, 65(2). 525-533. Gaebelein, C.J. and Senay, L.C. Jr. (1982) Vascular volume dynamics during ergometer exercise at different menstrual phases. European Journal of Applied Physiology 50: 1-11. Horvath, S.M. and Drinkwater, B.L. (1982) Thermoregulation and the Menstrual Cycle. Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine 53(8): 790- 794. Senay, L.C. (1973) Body fluids and temperature responses of heat- exposed women before and after ovulation with and without rehydration. Journal of Physiology, 232: 209-219. Stachenfeld, N.S., Silva, C., Keefe, D.L., Kokoszka, C.A., and Nadel, E.R. (1999) Effects of oral contraceptives on body fluid regulation. Journal of Applied Physiology 87(3): 1016-1025. son, L.A., Kolka, M.A., and Wilkerson, J.E. (1982). Metabolic and thermoregulatory responses to exercise during the human menstrual cycle. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 14(4): 270-275. Wells, C.L. and Horvath, S.M. (1973) Heat stress responses related to the menstrual cycle. Journal of Applied Physiology 35(1): 1-5. Muscle Function - Strength, Endurance, Power: Dibrezzo, R., Fort, I.L. and Brown, B. (1991) Relationships among strength, endurance, weight and body fat during three phases of the menstrual cycle. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness 31(1): 89-94 Greeves, J.P., Caple, N. T., Luckas, M.J.M., Reilly, T. and Biljan, M.M. (1997) Effects of acute changes in oestrogen on muscle function of the first dorsal interosseus muscle in humans. Journal of Physiology 500(1): 265-270 LeBrun, C.M, McKenzie, D.C., Prior, J.C. and Taunton, J.E. (1995). Effects of menstrual cycle phase on athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27(3): 437-444. ====================== Carruthers Wakefield, UK Quote Link to comment Share on other sites More sharing options...
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