Herman An Inside Job: Cleaning Up Air Quality in the Workplace

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An Inside Job: Cleaning Up Air Quality in the Workplace

The quality of the air we breathe while in the workplace has become an issue

of increasing concern to both the government and the public over the past

two decades. Every year, the federal government spends millions of

taxpayers' dollars to research indoor air quality problems. And while

concern for healthful air in the workplace is not a new issue, the focus has

shifted from manufacturing and industrial settings to problems of air

quality in the office environment. As the United States moves toward a

service and information economy, the number of office workers continues to

rise. That increase, along with a growing awareness among office workers of

workplace hazards, has fueled both public and private concern about indoor

air pollution.(1)

The energy crisis of the 1970s, coupled with advances in technology, has led

to a dramatic change in office facilities. Pressures to conserve energy

following the oil embargo resulted in the use of new insulation materials;

buildings were tightly sealed and ventilation was controlled to contain

energy costs. Today's modern offices are housed in climate-controlled,

energy-efficient buildings where workers are surrounded by an array of

high-tech equipment, synthetic materials, and artificial light. And while

these changes have improved comfort, increased efficiency, and reduced

energy costs, they have brought with them chemical and biological

contaminants that contribute to the growing problem of indoor air pollution,

and ergonomic and psychosocial problems that also affect workers' physical

and psychological well-being.

The concern over pollutants in the indoor air centers around the fact that

indoor pollutants are not as easily dispersed or diluted as pollutants

outdoors. And without adequate ventilation, toxic contaminants can

accumulate in the air we breathe. Studies of human exposure to air

pollutants by the EPA indicate that the indoor levels of many pollutants may

be two to five times, and occasionally more than 100 times, higher than

outdoor levels.(2) In addition, since people spend as much as 90 percent or

more of their time indoors, these high levels of indoor air pollutants can

present a serious health concern. Comparative-risk studies conducted in

recent years by EPA and its Science Advisory Board have consistently ranked

indoor air pollution among the top five environmental risks to public

health.(3) A World Health Organization committee estimates that up to 30

percent of new and remodeled buildings worldwide may be the subject of

excessive complaints related to indoor air quality. And according to the

EPA, almost every building may at some time experience indoor air quality

problems.(4) A study reported in the American Journal of Public Health found

that 24 percent of U.S. office workers perceived air quality problems in

their work environments, and 20 percent believed that the problems affected

their work performance.(5)

The potential economic impact of indoor air pollution is high: Preliminary

estimates place the cost at tens of billions of dollars per year.(6) This

includes direct medical costs and lost earnings due to major illness, as

well as increased employee sick days and lost productivity while on the job.

This has enormous implications for industry and the economy. If worker

productivity is not maximized in today's highly competitive global economy,

corporate survival is threatened. Moreover, with the increasing trend toward

litigation, building owners and operators and product manufacturers are

concerned about potential liability suits and costly damage awards that

could put them out of business. A poll of members of the International

Facility Management Association (IFMA) found that indoor air quality rates

highest on their list of concerns regarding the indoor environment. A report

on the survey results says that the poll " was prompted by growing concern

over the work environment's impact on employee health and productivity,

increased emphasis on businesses' environmental responsibilities, and a

rising awareness of potential legal liabilities. " (7) Lawsuits are already on

the increase. According to ce S. Kirsch, a Washington, D.C., attorney

and editor of the newsletter Indoor Pollution Law Report, " The trend is

toward indoor air pollution victims suing a large number of parties,

including the owners, architects, and ventilation contractors of a

building. " (8) Union leaders worldwide predict that indoor air quality issues

will be at the forefront of union/management arbitration in the next

decade.(9)

" Sick-building syndrome " and " building-related illness " are terms that have

been coined in recent years to describe situations in which building

occupants experience adverse health effects as a result of exposure to

pollutants contained in buildings where they work. These phenomena affect

numerous office workers and are widely recognized by occupational health

experts. " Sick-building syndrome " (SBS) is used to describe situations in

which building occupants experience acute health and comfort effects that

appear to be linked to time spent in a building, but for which no specific

illness or cause can be identified. The complaints may be localized in a

particular room or zone or may be widespread throughout the building.

Indicators of sick-building syndrome include these: Building occupants

complain of symptoms associated with acute discomfort, e.g., headache; eye,

nose, or throat irritation; dry or itchy skin; dizziness and nausea;

difficulty in concentrating; fatigue; and sensitivity to odors. The cause of

the symptom is not known. Most of the complainants report relief soon after

leaving the building.

In contrast, the term " building-related illness " (BRI) is used when symptoms

of diagnosable illness are identified (such as Legionnaires' disease,

asthma, allergic rhinitis) and can be attributed directly to airborne

building contaminants. Indicators of building-related illness include these:

Building occupants complain of symptoms such as cough, chest tightness,

fever, chills, and muscle aches. The symptoms can be clinically defined and

have clearly identifiable causes. Complainants may require prolonged

recovery times after leaving the building.(10)

Illustration 3. (83K illustration)

The difficulty in diagnosing SBS and BRI is that not all individuals react

in the same way when exposed to pollutants. Some individuals, those with

chronic allergies or multiple chemical sensitivities, for example, may react

more severely. In addition, physical symptoms related to various

psychosocial factors such as job-related stress or dissatisfaction may be

exacerbated by indoor air contamination.(11) Studies conducted in the United

Kingdom, Denmark, and the Netherlands indicate that the reported symptoms

are more common in those lower on the office hierarchy, and women report

more symptoms than men regardless of their status.( " >12)

Known indoor air problems that have been cited as causes of, or contributing

to, sick buildings include inadequate ventilation, pollutants emitted inside

the building, contamination from outside sources, and biological

contamination.

These air quality factors usually act in combination and often supplement

physical comfort factors. For this reason, the National Institute for

Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) prefers to use the term " Indoor

Environmental Quality " (IEQ) to more accurately describe the problem. NIOSH

investigators confirmed that factors such as comfort, noise, lighting,

ergonomic stressors (poorly designed workstations and tasks) and job-related

psychosocial stressors can individually and in combination contribute to

complaints. Since the late 1970s, NIOSH scientists have completed

evaluations of 1800 office environments through the agency's Health Hazard

Evaluation (HHE) program. In 1980, requests to evaluate office environments

made up only 6 percent of the total requests for NIOSH investigations. Since

1992, IEQ requests have made up 75 of all requests. Greater public awareness

and media coverage of the problem may have contributed to the increase;

following a network television report on the subject, NIOSH received over

6,000 telephone calls and nearly 700 requests for investigations.(13) Even

after a building investigation, however, specific causes of sick-building

syndrome may remain undetermined.(14)

Inadequate ventilation.

In 529 investigations of problem buildings, NIOSH concluded that 53 percent

of indoor air problems were caused by inadequate ventilation. In the past,

most office buildings had windows that opened, so it was easy for

individuals to control the amount of fresh air entering a room. In addition,

fresh air entered buildings through leaks in the building shell. Today, most

newer buildings have tightly sealed windows and mechanical heating,

ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems to control airflow and

temperature. To dilute and eventually remove indoor contaminants, HVAC

systems must bring in adequate amounts of outdoor air. However, because it

is costly to heat and cool air, some building engineers or building managers

reduce or eliminate the amount of outdoor air brought into the system during

periods of extremely hot or cold weather in order to contain energy costs.

This allows contaminated air to accumulate inside, causing pollutant

concentration to increase. The EPA points out that since labor costs may be

10 to 100 times greater per square foot of office space than energy and

other environmental-control costs, remedial actions to improve indoor air

quality are likely to be cost-effective even if they require an expensive

retrofit of the building.(15)

Currently, there are no federally regulated standards specifically for

indoor air quality. In late 1993 the Senate version of the Indoor Air

Quality Act, which focuses primarily on research, was passed. However, the

House version, which contains regulatory provisions, remains stalled

indefinitely in subcommittee.(16) In April 1994, OSHA proposed regulations

for indoor air quality that would protect the estimated 70 million people

working in nonindustrial buildings, including 27 million office workers,

from environmental tobacco smoke and sick-building syndrome. OSHA estimates

that compliance with the proposed regulations would cost an estimated $8

billion in the first year alone, and the proposal has generated considerable

controversy over who should pay to make the necessary changes in building

systems to comply. According to one report, OSHA contends that the measure

would eliminate 80 percent of health problems associated with indoor

pollution, including 69,000 severe headaches and 105,000 respiratory

problems. The ban on smoking would prevent 140 to 722 cancer deaths and

2,092 to 13,001 heart disease deaths a year.(17) The annual cost for

eliminating environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) would range from $68 million

to zero, depending on whether employers restrict smoking or ban it

altogether, according to OSHA estimates. Many employers already have smoking

policies in place; one report found that 111 of 113 large companies have

formal smoking policies, many restricting smoking to designated areas.

Health and safety organizations strongly support the proposed regulation,

but many organizations and individuals believe that compliance should be

voluntary or left to the states. Due to the amount of testimony received

during the hearings, and the studies and post-hearing comments that OSHA

must examine, some sources believe that it will be years before a final

standard is issued.(18)

Meanwhile, several government agencies, including the EPA and NIOSH, have

published literature to provide guidance on preventing or solving air

quality problems in the indoor environment. In addition, the American

Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE),

a professional organization, has published industry consensus guidelines,

" Standard 62-1989: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality " and

" Standard 55-1981: Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy. "

The former is a voluntary standard for " minimum ventilation rates and indoor

air quality that will be acceptable to human occupants and are intended to

avoid adverse health effects, " and the latter specifies " conditions in which

80 percent or more of the occupants of a building will find the environment

thermally acceptable. " (19) These standards apply to all types of facilities,

including office buildings. Because they are voluntary, however, these

standards cannot be enforced unless a state or locality adopts the standards

in its building code.(20) Some states, including Maine and New Hampshire,

have passed legislation mandating that all leased and newly constructed

state office buildings meet ASHRAE standards.(21) Recently, the New Jersey

Department of Community Affairs issued regulations based on ASHRAE standards

to protect public workers from many common indoor air pollutants.(22) In

addition, the state of Washington's Department of General Administration has

developed a program known as the " East Campus Plus Indoor Air Quality

Program, " which incorporates state-of-the-art design and mechanical

requirements as well as emissions testing requirements of all construction

materials, finishes, and furnishings.(23)

Increasing the amount of ventilation in a building alone will not solve air

quality problems, however, if an HVAC system is poorly designed, built, or

maintained. Air supply vents that are installed too close to building

exhaust vents can pull contaminated air back into the building. Placement of

supply vents near outdoor sources of pollution (such as loading docks,

parking or heavy traffic areas, chimneys, and trash depots) provides a

pathway for pollutants to enter a building. Failure to maintain proper

temperature, humidity, and air movement in a building can lead occupants to

block supply registers if the air supply is too hot or too cold, thus

interfering with airflow patterns. Placement of partitions or other barriers

within a space can also impair air movement. Frequently, problems arise when

buildings are remodeled or offices are reconfigured without taking existing

HVAC design and airflow patterns into account.

Illustration 4. (94K illustration)

Periods during which an HVAC system is operated can also affect indoor air

quality. An HVAC system that begins to operate after building occupants have

arrived, or shuts off before the end of the workday, can cause an increase

in building- and occupant-generated pollutant levels. Similarly, if the

system is off during periods of nonoccupancy (e.g., at night and on

weekends), building-generated pollutants may accumulate.(24) Researchers

have noticed that indoor air quality complaints are often at their peak on

Monday and diminish during the remainder of the week.(25)

In addition, HVAC systems must be properly maintained to promote indoor air

quality. Humidification and dehumidification systems must be kept clean to

prevent the growth of harmful bacteria and fungi. Failure to properly treat

the water in cooling towers to prevent the growth of organisms may introduce

such organisms into the HVAC supply ducts and cause serious health

problems.(26)

Chemical contaminants from indoor sources.

Contamination generated by sources inside the building was found to be the

primary contributor to the causes of complaints in 15 percent of the

buildings investigated by NIOSH. Some of the known sources of chemical

contaminants are copy machines, adhesives, carpeting, upholstery,

manufactured wood products, pesticides, tobacco smoke, foam insulation, and

cleaning agents, many of which emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

" Surprisingly little is known about the chemical emissions from products

destined for the indoor environment, " says Pearson, president and

co-founder of Air Quality Sciences, Inc. " These emissions typically result

in low-level, or chronic, exposure over long periods of time. " (27) Although

the exposure levels and health effects of some specific pollutants in indoor

environments are reasonably well-known, many questions remain about the

extent of exposure to, and health risks from, many pollutants and pollutant

mixtures. A study of indoor air quality in public buildings carried out by

the EPA identified at least 500 volatile organic compounds (including many

known and suspected carcinogens) in indoor air in all four buildings

studied, often at levels that were several times the outdoor concentration.

In one new office building, tested immediately after construction, the ratio

was 50 to 1; after two months, this ratio dropped to 10 to 1; and after an

additional three months, the ratio was 5 to 1.(28) " Environmental tobacco

smoke [also] contributes high levels of VOCs, other toxic compounds, and

respirable particulate matter. Research shows that some VOCs can cause

chronic and acute health effects at high concentrations, and some are known

carcinogens. An EPA study concluded that secondhand smoke is responsible for

about 3,000 lung cancer deaths in nonsmokers each year.(29) Low to moderate

levels of multiple VOCs may also produce acute reactions. " (30)

Illustration 5. (88K illustration)

Manufacturers and consumers are increasingly concerned about VOC emissions

from products. The Carpet and Rug Industry (CRI) partnered with the EPA in

1991 to establish test criteria and a voluntary labeling program.

Manufacturers whose products meet emissions test criteria can include a CRI

label that certifies the carpet as low-emitting product. One benefit of the

program is that manufacturers are pressuring suppliers to provide raw

materials that emit fewer VOCs. At present, only the carpeting industry has

an emissions testing and labeling program. However, other manufacturers also

test their products' emissions.(31) For example, Herman , Inc.,

contracted with an independent laboratory to determine the emission rates of

VOCs for the Action Office Series 2 system. Emission rates of formaldehyde,

total VOCs, and particulates were determined over a six-week test period for

a workstation unit; to assure that the tests would yield maximum readings,

testing was started within 72 hours of manufacture. The test results showed

that emissions were far below recommended minimum target levels. In

addition, the company uses an environmentally safe powder coat finishing

process for its metal products, which uses no hazardous materials and

produces no VOCs.

Chemical contaminants from outdoor sources.

Chemical contamination from outdoor sources was found to be the primary

contributor to problems in 10 percent of the buildings NIOSH investigated.

Typically, contaminants from outdoor sources are contained in the outdoor

air that enters a building. Building exhaust ducts and outside air intakes

located too close to each other can result in the reentry of contaminated

exhaust air into the building. The location of air-intake vents near outdoor

sources of pollution, such as loading docks, heavy traffic areas, chimneys,

and trash depots, also allows contaminants to enter a building.

One of the most common sources of outside contamination is combustion

products from motor vehicle exhaust, including carbon monoxide and nitrogen

dioxide, that are drawn into a building's ventilation system from

underground or attached parking garages. Other outside sources of

contamination include contaminants from construction or renovation projects,

such as asphalts, solvents, and dusts. In addition, gasoline fumes (usually

resulting from gasoline leaks in ruptured underground tanks at nearby

service stations) can infiltrate a building's basement and/or sewage system,

causing problems.(32)

Biological contaminants.

Bacteria, molds, fungi, pollen, and viruses were responsible for problems in

five percent of the buildings studied by NIOSH. These contaminants may breed

in stagnant water that has accumulated in ducts, humidifiers, and drain pans

or where water has collected on ceiling tiles, carpeting, or insulation.(33)

Biological contaminants can pose serious health hazards; for example,

Legionnaires' disease is caused by the Legionella bacterium, so named

because 34 people attending an American Legion convention in Philadelphia in

1976 died from a previously unknown form of pneumonia caused by the lethal

bacterium, which was incubated and spread through the hotel's ventilation

system.

Solving indoor air quality problems.

Because of the difficulty of establishing a causal link between many

contaminants and specific health problems, the EPA has focused its efforts

on developing a comprehensive pollution prevention and education program.

These efforts include the identification of pollutants that present direct

health risks in the indoor environment, the establishment of effective

partnerships with industry to provide consumers with the necessary

information to make informed purchasing decisions, and the development of

market-based incentives to reduce emissions. Since the agency's studies have

concluded that exposure to indoor air pollutants can be significantly

reduced by the way that buildings are designed and operated, the EPA has set

a high priority on providing that information to designers, architects,

building owners, facility managers, and the general public. Its

comprehensive guide, entitled Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building

Owners and Facility Managers, suggests that a number of measures can be

taken to prevent or solve problems of indoor air quality.(34) First, known

sources of pollution should be removed or controlled, where feasible. This

includes routine cleaning and maintenance of office areas and HVAC systems,

restrictions on smoking, venting contaminant-source emissions to the

outdoors, proper storage of toxic materials, and allowing new buildings or

remodeled areas to release gas pollutants before occupancy. (Some architects

and designers are taking a more radical approach, carefully selecting

building materials to avoid those that contain strong emitters or toxins.)

Increasing ventilation rates and ensuring effective air distribution can

also help lower the levels of indoor pollutants, while venting specific

areas where pollutants accumulate, such as copy machine and printing

facilities, can directly remove pollutants to the outdoors. Finally, " ...

education and communication are important elements in both remedial and

preventive indoor air quality management programs. When building occupants,

management, and maintenance personnel fully communicate and understand the

causes and consequences of indoor air quality problems, they can work more

effectively together, to prevent problems from occurring, or to solve

problems if they do. " (35)

© 1996 Herman , Inc.