FW: Tomato goodies and baddies and types of tomatoes

[Guest guest]

I meant to send this not the abstract for the second paper I introduced

below, All. I am sorry.

Cheers, Al.

-----Original Message-----From: Alan Pater [mailto:apater@...]

Sent: Thursday, October 10, 2002 9:10 AM

Hi All, I got the impression from two papers that tomatoes are potential

sources of glycoalkaloids, as are also found in potatoes especially when

green, and types of tomatoes makes a big difference. It seems that cherry

tomatoes are best in terms of having fewer glycoalkaloids and more

anti-oxidants. The cluster tomatoes are about half way between the

significantly worse salad and elongated tomatoes, which I had not know of

before. Green tomatoes seem bad in terms of having high levels of

glycoalkaloids. This can reduce body weight but seems to do so through

toxic effects – not something I would like for me.

I can send full-text PDF of both papers. For the first and latest paper I

put in excerpts at first. I attached the abstract for the first paper and

for the second the text without figures (hopefully). The tables may be a

mess in email but I hope for better in the files.

Cheers, Al.

Leonardi C, Ambrosino P, Esposito F, Fogliano V.

Antioxidative activity and carotenoid and tomatine contents in different

typologies of fresh consumption tomatoes.

J Agric Food Chem. 2000 Oct;48(10):4723-7.

PMID: 11052724 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Friedman M.

Tomato glycoalkaloids: role in the plant and in the diet.

J Agric Food Chem. 2002 Oct 9;50(21):5751-80.

PMID: 12358437 [PubMed - in process]..............

[ACS Publications Division]

[Journal Home Page] [search the Journals] [Table of Contents] [PDF version

of this article]

J. Agric. Food Chem., 48 (10), 4723 -4727, 2000. 10.1021/jf000225t

S0021-8561(00)00225-9

Web Release Date: September 7, 2000

Copyright © 2000 American Chemical Society

Antioxidative Activity and Carotenoid and Tomatine Contents in Different

Typologies of Fresh Consumption Tomatoes

C. Leonardi,*[image] P. Ambrosino,[image] F. Esposito,[image] and V.

Fogliano[image]

Dipartimento di Orto-Floro-Arboricoltura e Tecnologie Agroalimentari,

Università di Catania, Via Valdisavoia 5, 95123 Catania, Italy, and

Dipartimento di Scienza degli Alimenti, Università di Napoli " Federico II " ,

Parco Gussone, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy

Received for review February 18, 2000. Revised manuscript received July 17,

2000. Accepted July 19, 2000. Financial assistance was received from POM

Research Project A14 (Qualificazione dei prodotti tipici per migliorare la

competitività della produzione agroalimentare meridionale).

Abstract:

The phytonutrient intake associated with tomato consumption depends also on

cultivar and fruit ripening stage. This work associates the antioxidative

ability, the level of carotenoids, and the amount of glycoalkaloids to the

main carpometric characteristics of four different typologies of tomatoes:

" cherry " , " cluster " , " elongated, " and " salad " . These typologies have

different weights and shapes, and they are usually consumed in the

Mediterranean area at different ripening stages. Results showed that the

considered tomato typologies also differ in their antioxidative ability and

their carotenoid and glycoalkaloid contents. Growing conditions are also

important in determining fruit characteristics: the analysis of the same

cultivar of cherry tomato produced under the influence of moderate salt

stress showed increases in the lipophilic antioxidative ability and the

amount of carotenoid, whereas the level of glycoalkaloid decreased.

Keywords: Tomato; quality; antioxidative activity; carotenoid; tomatine;

fruit typology; growing conditions

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables play a significant role in human nutrition (Goddard

and s, 1979). Among vegetables, tomato is the most important both

for its large consumption and for its richness in health-related food

components. Tomatoes represent a convenient way to supply several nutrients

such as folate, vitamin C, and potassium, but the peculiar compounds of

this vegetable are carotenoids, particularly lycopene (Beecher, 1997). It

is well established that due to their antioxidant activity these compounds

prevent cardiovascular disease and cancer (La Vecchia, 1997). Besides the

compounds beneficial for human health, tomatoes could also contain tomatine

and dehydrotomatine, glycoalkaloids having well-known toxic properties

(Friedman and Mc, 1997). The content of these glycoalkaloids

decreases during ripening, whereas that of carotenoids increases (Kozukue

et al., 1994; Rick et al., 1994). Therefore, it can be concluded that the

consumption of well-ripened tomatoes should ensure maximum health benefit,

with a high level of carotenoids coupled with the absence of

glycoalkaloids. However, great efforts are in progress to elucidate the

physiological process as well as the storage conditions that can control

the phytonutrients content in foods (Goldman et al., 1999; Grusak et al.,

1999).

Tomato is represented by several hundred cultivars and hybrids in response

to the fresh consumption tomato market, which demands fruits having very

different characteristics (Leonardi, 1994). Therefore, tomato cultivars for

fresh consumption show great differences in fruit characteristics in terms

of fruit size (from a few to some hundreds of grams), shape (from flattened

to elongated), and color (from yellow to dark red). Moreover, according to

consumer and market requirements, tomato fruits are harvested at different

stages of ripening: from breaking to red color.

There are several works describing the variation of the qualitative

characteristics of tomatoes in relation to cultivars [e.g., Davies and

Winsor (1969), Gormley et al. (1983), and s et al. (1977)] and

growing conditions [e.g., Blanc (1986), La Malfa et al. (1995), and

et al. (1991)]. Most of these works have taken into consideration

only some qualitative characteristics (e.g., dry matter and soluble

solids), whereas the antioxidative ability, the carotenoid composition, and

particularly the glycoalkaloid content have not been considered.

The objective of the present work was to establish the antioxidative

ability and the level of carotenoids and glycoalkaloids of four typologies

of tomatoes commonly used for fresh consumption and differing in their main

carpometric characteristics (i.e., weight, shape, and stage of ripening).

For one of the above typologies the effects of growing conditions were also

analyzed.

Materials and Methods

Sampled Materials. Greenhouse-grown tomatoes were sampled during May-June

1999 from southeastern Sicily (Ragusa province), a region of Italy widely

exploited for tomato greenhouse cultivation. The following tomato

typologies were taken into consideration (Figure 1): " cherry " (cv. Naomi

F1), " cluster type " (cv. Felicia, F1), " elongated " (cv. Italdor, F1); and

" salad " (cv. ES200, F1). For cherry typology, to verify if the salinity

level of irrigation water could determine any effect on the considered

parameters, a second sampling was taken in a close cultivation area

(Siracusa province), where the electrical conductivity of irrigation water

was at least 1 dS/cm higher; in the text and in the tables the two

proveniences are indicated as " cherry Ragusa " and " cherry Siracusa " .

------------------------------------------------------------------------

[image] Figure 1 Tomato typologies analyzed: (A) elongated; ( salad;

© cluster; (D) cherry.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Each typology was harvested at the ripening stage considered the most

suitable for marketing: " full ripening " for the cherry and cluster types

and " green-orange " for the elongated and salad types.

To mediate the effects of growing conditions, within each sample, fruits

were harvested from five different farms, selected for their uniformity,

and then pooled in one sample. After harvesting, tomatoes were kept for 2

days at ambient temperature, and then carpometric characteristics,

antioxidant activity, and carotenoid and glycoalkaloid contents were

determined separately on three groups of fruits, consisting of 30 fruits

each chosen at random from each sample.

Carpometric Characteristics. The following determinations were performed on

each sample: the unit fruit weight; the firmness, determined by measuring

the force (g) to compress each fruit 2 mm between two steel plates using a

Texture Analyzer model TA-XT2 Stable Micro Systems apparatus; the soluble

solids, measured by a refractometer (Atago), results reported as

[image]Brix at 20 [image]C; the dry matter (%), obtained by drying the

fruits in a thermoventilated oven at 70 [image]C until constant weight was

reached; the chromatic coordinates (L*, a*, and b*), measured as described

by McGuire (1992) by a tristimulus Minolta Chroma meter (model CR-200,

Minolta Corp.). In the table color is described by lightness (L*), hue

angle (h[image] = a*/b*), and chroma (C*).

Biochemical Analyses. Carotenoid Content. The procedure described by

Tonucci et al. (1995) was followed with slight modification. Whole tomatoes

were homogenized in a blender, extracted in THF in the presence of BHT, and

resuspended in 5 mL of CHCl3. A further 1:10 dilution of the extracted

material in 40% CH3CN, 20% methanol, 20% hexane, and 20% CH2Cl2 was

performed before the chromatographic analysis. HPLC separation was carried

out at a flow rate of 0.8 mL min-1 and a temperature of 30 [image]C using a

Shimadzu HPLC with diode array detection and a Supelcosil C18 column (250 ×

4.6 mm). Carotenoid elution was achieved using the following linear

gradient: starting condition, 82% A, 18% B; 20 min, 76% A, 24% B; 30 min,

58% A, 42% B; 40 min, 39% A, 61% B. " A " was CH3CN and " B " was

methanol/hexane/CH2Cl2 1:1:1 v/v. Quantification of carotenoids was

achieved by calibration curve obtained with authentic standard

([image]-carotene from Fluka) or HPLC-purified compound (lycopene). The

concentration of the standards was calculated using the extinction

coefficient.

Antioxidant Activity. One gram of tomato homogenate was washed twice with 5

mL of deionized water and centrifuged through a cheesecloth filter to

separate the aqueous component from the insoluble fraction. The antioxidant

activity was measured on a water-soluble fraction using the

N,N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DMPD) method (Fogliano et al., 1999).

Briefly, 20 [image]L of tomato aqueous extracts was added to 2 mL of a

solution containing the DMPD radical cation in acetate buffer. The

quenching of absorbance at 505 nm was compared with that obtained by a

standard solution of ascorbic acid or Trolox.

The 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) method

performed as described by Pellegrini et al. (1999) was employed to assess

the antioxidant activity of water-insoluble fractions. The assay was

performed using different volumes (20-100 [image]L) of the material

obtained from the carotenoid extraction procedure described above and used

for HPLC analysis. The antioxidative activities of the lipophilic fraction

were expressed in millimoles of Trolox present in 100 g of fresh tomato,

whereas for the hydrophilic fraction ascorbic acid was used as reference

compound.

Glycoalkaloids. One gram of freeze-dried tomato samples was extracted by 20

mL of 1% acetic acid for 2 h (Friedman and Levin, 1998). The extract was

prepurified by a Sep-Pak column (Friedman and Levin, 1992). HPLC analysis

with UV detection (200 nm) was performed using a C18 Phenomenex column (250

× 4.6 mm) and 100 mM NH4H2PO4 in 32.5% CH3CN, adjusted to pH 3.5 with

phosphoric acid, as mobile phase using isocratic condition.

Statistical Evaluation of Data. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried

out with Sigmastat 2.0 (Jandel Scientific Software) to determine any

significant difference. Data were analyzed considering fruit typology and

growing conditions as experimental factors. When effects were significant

(P [image] 0.05), we performed the Student-Newman-Keuls test; in the

tables, different letters, within each parameter, indicate significant

differences.

Results and Discussion

Carpometric Characteristics and Carotenoid Content. The tomato typologies

considered for our investigation were harvested at the stage at which they

are usually consumed in the Mediterranean area. It is worth noting that the

studied tomatoes presented relevant differences in their appearance; thus,

external fruit characteristics greatly varied (Table 1[image] ).

The stage of ripening at harvesting-which is one of the most important

factors modifying fruit quality (Grierson and Kader, 1986)-can explain the

relevant variations in terms of firmness and fruit color (a*/b*), observed

on salad and elongated tomatoes (harvested at turning) compared to cluster

and cherry tomatoes (harvested at full ripening). As already observed in

other studies (s et al., 1977; Giovannelli et al., 1999), soluble

solids and dry matter contents were not clearly associated with ripening

stage; in fact, only slight variations were observed among salad,

elongated, and cluster types. In cherry tomatoes both parameters were

significantly higher.

As expected, a great variation among the different samples is present in

the carotenoid component in terms of both total amount and qualitative

composition. In Figure 2 (panels A and the chromatograms of carotenoid

extracts from two different cultivars are reported; the carotenoid pattern

is quite different depending on tomato typology. The chromatogram of

elongated tomato (panel A) is well resolved and contains a significant

amount of all the identified carotenoids. On the other hand, in the

chromatogram of salad tomato (panel the presence of several unknown

compounds leads to peaks overlapping in different regions. The UV spectra

of these unidentified compounds are typical of carotenoid compounds with a

triplet of maximum of absorbance between 444 and 502 nm. Quantitative data

of composition of the main carotenoids are presented in Table 2[image] .

Lycopene was always the most represented in all typologies, although in the

salad tomato a relevant part (57%) of unidentified carotenoids was present.

In cluster and cherry tomatoes lycopene represented 79 and 85% of total

carotenoids, respectively.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure 2 HPLC chromatograms of carotenoids extracted from

elongated tomato (A) and salad tomato (. Different wavelength

detections are present: zone A, 450 nm; zone B, 400 nm; zone C,

[image] 350 nm; zone D, 290 nm. Peak identification: 1, lutein; 2,

lycopene 5,6-diol; 3, lycopene 1,2-epoxide; 4, lycopene; 5,

neurosporene; 6, [image]-carotene; 7, [image]-carotene; 8,

unknown; 9, [image]-carotene; 10, phytofluene; 11, phytoene.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

The amount of carotenoids present in fully ripe fruits was for both cherry

and cluster tomatoes in agreement with those reported in the literature

(Tonucci et al., 1995). Considering the absolute content, tomato

green-orange typologies do not represent an important way to supply

carotenoids. In fact, the carotenoid content is very low, in both salad and

elongated tomatoes (3 and 20%, respectively, of the total carotenoids found

in other tomato typologies).

Antioxidant Activity. A prerequisite to measure the antioxidant activity of

tomato is the separation of aqueous and lipophilic fractions. Therefore,

two procedures are necessary to evaluate the contribution of the different

tomato components to the total antioxidative activity. Two radical cation

assays were selected because these methodologies are cheap, not laborious,

and, therefore, very useful for this kind of screening.

The hydrophilic activity is ~40% higher in the two cherry tomatoes, whereas

the differences among the other varieties are negligible (Figure 3). It is

reported in the literature (Giovannelli et al., 1999) that the

concentration of hydrophilic antioxidant such as ascorbic and other organic

acids is not clearly influenced by the ripening. Our data show that cherry

tomato has a high hydrophilic antioxidative ability. Therefore, it can be

argued that the cultivar mainly influences this parameter.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure 3 Antioxidant ability of different tomato typologies

[image] expressed in millimole equivalents of Trolox or ascorbic acid

per 100 g of fresh weight (means ± SD).

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Results obtained for the lipophilic antioxidants are well related to the

amount of carotenoid present in each sample. The antioxidant ability is

significantly higher in cherry and cluster tomatoes and lower in salad and

elongated tomatoes. Interestingly, the value of cherry tomato is higher

than cluster tomato, although the two varieties have roughly the same

amounts of total carotenoids. Also, the value of salad type is 40% higher

than that of elongated tomato, notwithstanding it contains one-third of the

total carotenoids (see Table 2). These discrepancies are likely related to

the different compositions of the carotenoid extracts. For the salad type

it is possible that the carotenoid-like unidentified compounds can account

for the relatively high antioxidative ability.

The antioxidative ability expressed as millimoles of Trolox present in 100

g of fresh products is in good agreement with that reported by Pellegrini

et al. (1999), considering that these authors reported the value of

antioxidative ability for a kilogram of dry material. It this case it was

preferred to refer the value to 100 g of fresh products to maintain the

notation used for the food composition tables.

Content of Glycoalkaloids. It is well-known that the content of

glycoalkaloids decreases during ripening, being negligible for fully red

tomatoes (Kozukue et al., 1994). Glycoalkaloids are toxic in several in

vitro assays (Friedman and Mc, 1997); therefore, their consumption is

potentially harmful. Several cases of glycoalkaloid poisoning have been

described mainly due to ingestion of sprouted potatoes (McMillan and

, 1979). Actually the effective in vivo toxicity of these compounds

is still unclear. As a matter of fact, populations that normally eat tomato

accessions having very high tomatine contents do not have any toxicity

symptoms (Rick et al., 1994). Moreover, it was reported that a green tomato

rich diet can contribute to cholesterol reduction due to the formation of a

complex between tomatine and cholesterol (Friedman et al., 1997).

In the tomato typologies we have studied, we observed outstanding

variations in the total amount of glycoalkaloids, which varied between 8

and 43 mg/kg of fresh weight, with a ratio between tomatine (TOM) and

dehydrotomatine (DHM) that is always between 1:20 and 1:10. These data are

comparable with those reported in the literature, although the

glycoalkaloid content of each typology is not strictly related to the

ripening stage. In fact, the salad type, which was harvested at the

green-orange stage, had a glycoalkaloid content comparable to that of the

cluster type, which was taken at full ripening stage (Table 3[image] ). On

the other hand, salad and elongated tomatoes (harvested at similar ripening

stages) showed very different glycoalkaloid contents. It can be concluded

that besides the ripening stage also the role of genotype is relevant in

determining the glycoalkaloid content. The elongated typology, with a level

of 40 mg/kg, has a relatively high content of these compounds considering

that the current guideline for potato establishes a maximum allowed level

of 200 mg/kg of glycoalkaloids. It should be noted that in vitro assays

demonstrate that TOM is less toxic compared to the main potato

glycoalkaloids (Friedman and Mc, 1997). On the other hand, no data

for DHT are available.

Antioxidative Activity and Carotenoid and Glycoalkaloid Contents According

to Growing Conditions. The variation induced by water salinity on the

nutritional parameters above studied was investigated. Two samples of the

same cultivar of cherry tomato were examined. Cherry Ragusa was grown using

irrigation water having an electrical conductivity of <~2 mS/cm, whereas in

the growing area of cherry Siracusa the water used for irrigation has an

electrical conductivity of ~3 mS/cm. The differences in the carpometric

parameters fruit weight, dimension, and soluble solid and dry matter

contents (see Table 1) could therefore be explained by the effect of salt

stress widely described in previous works [e.g., et al. (1991)].

Water stress induced by high salinity mainly restricts the amount of water

supplied to the fruit by the phloem, whereas the concentration of the

phloem sap is increased (Ho et al., 1987). The consequence is that cherry

Siracusa has higher soluble solids and dry matter with respect to cherry

Ragusa; therefore, although the carotenoid patterns are similar, the amount

of carotenoid per 100 g of fresh weight was ~50% higher in cherry Siracusa.

It is worth noticing that this difference is not detectable in the

measurment of the skin color (see Table 1). This evidence suggests that the

color determination is not sufficient to quantify the carotenoid contents,

particularly when ripening reaches the red stage. The lipophilic

antioxidative ability was, according to the carotenoid content, higher in

cherry Siracusa. On the other hand, the hydrophilic antioxidative abilities

were very similar between the two cherry tomato samples and significantly

higher respect to the other typologies.

The glycoalkaloid level is quite low in cherry Ragusa (8.2 mg/kg), whereas

it is under the detection limit (i.e., <2 mg/kg) in cherry Siracusa. This

finding could be of great interest, and it should be related to the

regulation of the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites in plants grown

under high salinity.

Conclusion. Tomato consumption is usually associated with the intake of

lycopene and other antioxidants having healthy effects. The tomatoes

analyzed in this work represent the typologies mainly used for fresh

consumption in Mediterranean countries. They show outstanding differences

in antioxidative ability and in the content of carotenoids and

glycoalkaloids. Three factors seem to play a pivotal role in determining

these differences: (i) cultivar; (ii) ripening stage; and (iii) growing

conditions. A thorough investigation of the influence of each factor on the

tomato composition is beyond the aim of this work; however, the data allow

some speculation. Carotenoid content as well as lypophilic antioxidant

activity was more affected by ripening stage than by cultivar, which

determined slight even if significant effects. Glycoalkaloid content was

dependent on both cultivar and ripening stage. Hydrophilic antioxidative

activity depends on typology, and it is independent of the ripening stage.

Cherry tomatoes have the highest lipophilic and hydrophilic antioxidative

abilities; moreover, their high carotenoid level is combined with a low

content of glycoalkaloids.

Future works will investigate the factors related to pre- and postharvest

conditions that must be taken into account to better understand their

influence in the synthesis and accumulation of components such as

carotenoids and glycoalkaloids as well as the antioxidative ability. All of

these factors contribute to the determination of tomato quality,

particularly in terms of the health-related properties of this fruit.

* Corresponding author (telephone + 39 095 234323/355079; fax + 39 095

234329; e-mail leonardi@...).

[image] Università di Catania.

[image] Università di Napoli " Federico II " .

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------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 1. Carpometric Characteristics of Considered Tomato Fruit

Typologiesa

shape

typology wt equat (polar/equat locule (no.) firmness

(g) diam (cm) (g/2 mm)

diam)

salad 155.6 7.0 a 0.76 d 3.3 a 1968 a

a

elongated 128.6 4.5 c 2.41 a 2.4 c 1482 b

b

cluster 106.6 6.1 b 0.81 c 3.0 b 1017 c

c

cherry 15.9

Ragusa d 3.1 d 0.97 b 2.0 d 674 d

cherry 13.2

Siracusa e 2.8 e 0.97 b 2.0 d 619 d

color

soluble solids ( dry mat-

typology L* h[image] C* [image]Brix)

ter (%)

salad 45.5 0.16 b 24.5 b 5.08 c 5.61 c

b

elongated 49.4 0.05 b 29.7 a 4.64 c 5.09 c

a

cluster 38.0 1.11 a 29.9 a 4.78 c 5.37 c

c

cherry 36.7

Ragusa c 1.12 a 25.3 b 6.05 b 7.45 b

cherry 37.4

Siracusa c 1.10 a 24.8 b 7.87 a 9.49 a

a In this and the following tables different letters, within each

parameter, indicate significant differences according to the

Student-Newman-Keuls test.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 2. Carotenoid Content (Milligrams per 100 g of Fresh

Weight) in Different Tomato Typologies

lyc

typology lycopene phytoene phyto- lutein[image]-carotene [image]-carotene 5,6-

lyc 1,2-neuro- [image]-carotene unident- total

fluen

epoxide sporene ified carotenoids

diol

salad 0.11 e 0.01 e nda nd 0.05 0.08 e nd

0.03 c nd nd 0.36 0.64 d

elongated1.00 d 0.06 d 0.04 d 0.20a 0.90a 0.29 d 0.02

0.08 b 0.01 b 0.01 c nd 2.60 c

c

cluster 7.90 b 0.47 c 0.23 c 0.01 b0.01 c 0.49 c 0.06

nd 0.02 a 0.04 b nd 9.24 b

b

cherry 0.06

Ragusa 7.20 c 0.52 b 0.33 b nd nd 0.92 b b

0.03 c nd 0.03 b nd 9.11 b

cherry

Siracusa 10.80 a 0.61a 0.41a nd nd 1.05a 0.08a

0.17a nd 0.07a nd 13.19 a

a nd, not detected.

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Table 3. Glycoalkaloid Contents of Different

Tomato Typologies (Milligrams per Kilogram of

Fresh Weight)

typology tomatine dehydrotomatine total

salad 13.2 b 0.38 b 13.6 b

elongated 41.3 a 2.01 a 43.3 a

cluster 9.9 c 0.23 b 10.1 c

cherry Ragusa 8.0 c 0.22 b 8.2 c

cherry Siracusa nda nd nd

a nd, not detected.

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